Unraveling the Mystery of Memory: Stages, Types, and Strategies

1. Memory

2. Memory • Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information • Procedural: how to ride a bike • Factual: definition of “learning” • Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory)

3. Importance of Memory • Memory is the most extraordinary phenomenon • Nearly all higher mental functions (speech, thinking, perceptions, moods, judgments) are based on phenomenon of memory • Stores events as video recordings along with associated feelings and emotions • Pleasant and unpleasant memories

4. Three Stages of Memory • Human memory resembles a computer • It has three stages: • Encoding: Sensory information is received and coded or transferred into neural impulses which can be processed further or stored for later use. • Storage: the encoded information is stored in memory system. Some information is stored briefly and then discarded e.g. telephone number, others used frequently is stored on permanent basis

5. Retrieval: when we recall or bring a memory in consciousness, we have retrieved it. This process is called Memory Retrieval.

6. Three Types of Memory • Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system • Storage of sensory events such as sights, sounds and tastes

7. Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory • Selective Attention: determine what information to send to short-term memories • Brief memory, temporary storehouse • Information is stored as images, sounds • Limited capacity (7 items) • Duration is about 30 seconds

8. Long-Term Memory • Permanent storehouse • LTM is large capacity and long duration • Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning and importance

9. Overview of Memory Model

10. Varieties of LTM • Psychologists distinguish between two types of LTM • Semantic memory refers to factual information, general and specific information (What is the capital of Pakistan?) • Episodic memory refers to memory of personal events as to where and when an event happened • “I remember visiting the……………” • “My first day at college”

11. Overview of LTM

12. Organization of LTM • Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item • Sometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient • Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)

13. Rehearsal • This process consists of keeping items of information in the center of attention by repeating them • If someone having good memory it is due to his ability and experience in rehearsing • Not only amount of rehearsal is important but also the ways in which information is rehearsed • Elaborative rehearsal: giving meaning, organization to the material being rehearsed

14. Memory Measures • Recognition is when a specific cue (face or name) is matched against LTM • Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory • e.g. define the term “personality” • Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time. Memory is evident in savings of time to relearn the second time versus the first

15. Flashbulb Memories • Memories with strong emotional attachment. • Where were you when you first heard: • That Benazir Bhutto had been killed?

16. Forgetting • Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information • Forgetting refers to memory failure • Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall

17. Theories of Forgetting • Interference theory argues that learning new things interferes with what we learned earlier • Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information • Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information • Decay theory: memory trace fades with time

18. Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful, unpleasant memories (protective memory loss) • Repression • Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

19. Amnesia • Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or by trauma • Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma • Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia Point of Trauma

20. Pathological Changes in Memory • MMSE • Amnestic disorders • Dementias • Alzheimer’s diseases

21. Anatomy of Memory • Two key parts of limbic system are essential in receiving new information and storing it: • Hippocampus • Amygdala

22. Anatomy of Memory Bilateral damage to the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia

23. Memory Strategies • Feedback of Knowledge: feedback allows you to check effectiveness of learning • Attention • Recitation and Rehearsal: repetition of what you have learned

24. Organization and Categorization-chunks • North, man, blue, summer, girl, green, west, yellow, boy, east, woman • Chunking helps long term memory • Linking information meaningfully • Organizing ideas into hierarchies

25. Selection: careful and selective marking in your text book • Attach emotions, feelings: we hardly forget what is emotionally significant

26. Distributed practice refers to spacing learning periods in contrast to massed practice in which learning is “crammed” into a single session • Distributed practice leads to better retention • Sleep: sleep after the study is helpful and reduces the interference

27. Overlearning: memory is greatly improved when study is continued beyond bare mastery. • Review • Manage your time

28. What do we remember? • Flanagan (1997) argues that we remember: • 20% of what we read • 30% of what we hear • 40% of what we see • 50% of what we say • 60% of what we do • And • 90% of what we read, hear, see, say and do.