Chapter Thirteen

Chapter Thirteen Charismatic Leadership

Reading 30A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership • The initial meaning of charisma was “gift” • Max Weber distinguished innovators and creators from maintainers • He attributed the “gift” of charisma in part to the creative or innovative quality of the leader’s goals

Propositions • Proposition 1: Charismatic leaders are dominant, self-confident, have a high need for influence, and a strong conviction in the moral righteousness of their beliefs • Proposition 2: The more favorable the perceptions of the potential follower toward a leader, the more the follower will model the leader’s: • Valences • Expectations • Emotional responses • Attitudes

Propositions • Proposition 3: Charismatic leaders are most likely to engage in behaviors designed to create the impression of competence and success • Proposition 4: Charismatic leaders are more likely to articulate ideological goals than other leaders • Proposition 5: Leaders who communicate high expectations of, and confidence in, followers are more likely to have followers who accept the goals of the leader and who strive to meet challenging standards

Propositions • Proposition 6: Charismatic leaders are more likely to engage in behaviors that arouse motives relevant to the accomplishment of the mission • Proposition 7: A necessary condition for charismatic leadership is that the role of followers be definable in ideological terms that appeal to the follower

Conclusion — Why a 1976 Theory • The date 1976 is attached to the title to reflect the philosophy of science of the writer • The theory is advanced for the purpose of guiding future research and not as a conclusive explanation of the charismatic phenomenon • The results of empiric tests of the theory will undoubtedly require revision of the theory

Reading 31Toward a Behavioral Theory of Charismatic Leadership in Organizational Settings • Examples of charismatic business leaders have received little attention as a subject of serious study • Researchers have shied away from studying charismatic leadership because: • Of its elusive nature and the mystical connotation of the term • There is no real systematic conceptual framework to study charismatic leadership

Hypotheses • Hypothesis 1: The behavioral components of charismatic leadership are interrelated and as such they form a constellation of components • Hypothesis 2: Leaders are charismatic when their vision is highly discrepant from the status quo yet is accepted by followers • Hypothesis 3: Charismatic leaders may take on high personal risks incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve a shared vision

Hypotheses • Hypothesis 4: Charismatic leaders demonstrate expertise in transcending the existing order through the use of unconventional or extraordinary means • Hypothesis 5: Charismatic leaders engage in behaviors that are novel, unconventional, and counternormative • Hypothesis 6: Charismatic leaders engage in realistic assessments of environmental resources and constraints affecting the realization of their visions, and implement strategies when the odds are favorable

Hypotheses • Hypothesis 7: Charismatic leaders portray the status quo as negative or intolerable and the future vision as the most attractive and attainable alternative • Hypothesis 8: Charismatic leaders articulate their motivation to lead through assertive behavior and expression of self-confidence, expertise, unconventionality, and concern for followers’ needs • Hypothesis 9: Charismatic leaders’ influence stems from the use of their personal idiosyncratic power rather than the use of their position power

Hypotheses • Hypothesis 10: Charismatic leaders exert idiosyncratic personal power over their followers through elitist, entrepreneurial, and exemplary behavior rather than through consensus-seeking or directive behavior • Hypothesis 11: Charismatic leaders are reformers or agents of change; their charisma fades when they act as administrators or managers

Hypotheses • Hypothesis 12: Contextual factors that cause potential followers to be disenchanted with the prevailing social order facilitate the emergence of charismatic leaders • Hypothesis 13: Under conditions of relative social tranquility and lack of psychological distress among followers, the actions by a leader that support an attribution of charisma facilitate the emergence of that leader as a charismatic leader

Implications • In the model, charisma is viewed both as: • A set of dispositional attributions by followers • A set of leaders’ manifest behaviors • The model has direct implications for management • If the behavioral components of charismatic leadership can be isolated, it may be possible to develop these attributes in managers

Reading 32The Role of Followers in the Charismatic Leadership Process: Relationships and Their Consequences • Without followers, there are plainly no leaders or leadership (Hollander, 1993) • Theories of charismatic leadership have been accused of promoting a “heroic leadership” stereotype • Howell and Shamir offer a theoretical analysis of the ways in which followers influence the charismatic leadership process • The leader-member exchange (LMX) approach developed by Graen acknowledges the importance of the role of followers in leadership processes

The Charismatic Leader-Follower Relationship • The follower is a person who acknowledges the focal leader as a continuing source of guidance and inspiration, regardless of whether there is a formal reporting relationship • The charismatic leadership process is the process through which the charismatic relationship is created and maintained • Two types of charismatic relationships • Personalized • Socialized

Propositions • Proposition 1a: Followers with low self-concept clarity will form a personalized charismatic relationship with the leader • Proposition 1b: Followers with high self-concept clarity will form a socialized charismatic relationship with the leader • Proposition 2a: Followers with a relational identity orientation will form a personalized charismatic relationship with the leader • Proposition 2b: Followers with a collective identity orientation will form a socialized charismatic relationship with the leader

Propositions • Proposition 3: Followers with low self-concept clarity or a relational identity orientation will form a charismatic relationship with a leader • Proposition 4: Followers with low self-concept clarity or a relational identity orientation will be more susceptible than followers with high self-concept clarity or a collective identity orientation to image-building efforts, on the part of the leader, that emphasize the leader’s power and desirable personal attributes

Propositions • Proposition 5: Followers with low self-concept clarity or a relational identity orientation will have a higher tendency than followers with high self-concept clarity or a collective identity orientation to idealize or romanticize the leader, in the sense of over attributing to the leader desirable qualities and a high level of influence • Proposition 6: Followers with high self-concept clarity or a high collective identity orientation will form a charismatic relationship with the leader on the basis of social attraction

Propositions • Proposition 6a: Followers with high self-concept clarity will form a charismatic relationship with a leader on the basis of the extent to which the leader and his/her messages match the followers’ values and identities • Proposition 6b: Followers with a high collective identity orientation will form a charismatic relationship with a leader on the basis of the match between the leader’s traits and behaviors and the group identity

Propositions • Proposition 7: Followers who form a personalized charismatic relationship with a leader are more prone to blind faith and unquestioning obedience to the leader than followers who form a socialized charismatic relationship with the leader • Proposition 8: Followers who form a personalized charismatic relationship with a leader are more likely to become dependent on the leader than followers who form a socialized charismatic relationship with the leader

Propositions • Proposition 9: The more followers accept the leader, approve of the leader, show the leader respect and admiration, cooperate with the leader, and provide the leader with resources, the more the leader will feel empowered • Proposition 10: The more the leader feels empowered, the more he or she will engage in charismatic behaviors • Proposition 11: Personalized charismatic relationships are more likely than socialized charismatic relationships to lead to harmful consequences for the organization and its members

Implications and Opportunities forTheoretical Extension • To amplify charismatic leaders’ strengths and to modulate their weaknesses, analysis suggests that actions need to be taken at the organizational level • Finally, understanding followers is as important as understanding leaders

Chapter Thirteen