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UNIT 5: ADVOCACY, RADICAL & TRANSACTIVE PLANNING THEORIES

UNIT 5: ADVOCACY, RADICAL & TRANSACTIVE PLANNING THEORIES. THE THEORY OF PARTICIPATION. Meaning and Rationale of Participation. What is Participation? And Participation in What?

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UNIT 5: ADVOCACY, RADICAL & TRANSACTIVE PLANNING THEORIES

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  1. UNIT 5: ADVOCACY, RADICAL & TRANSACTIVE PLANNING THEORIES

  2. THE THEORY OF PARTICIPATION PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  3. Meaning and Rationale of Participation What is Participation? And Participation in What? • “It is the redistribution of power that enables the have-not citizens, presently excluded from the political and economic processes, to be deliberately included in the future” (S.R. Arnstein, 1969: 216) PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  4. Meaning and Rationale of Participation Why Should Citizens Participate? 1. Can be a response to the rise of marginalized groups (minority groups, students, the poor, etc) to demand a say in decisions that affect them PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  5. Meaning and Rationale of Participation Why Should Citizens Participate? “Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation.” [Anne Firor Scott and Andrew McKay (1982), One Half the People] PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  6. Meaning and Rationale of Participation Why Should Citizens Participate? 2. It is a tenet of democracy 3. Empowers marginalized people to have a say in addressing economic, social and political conditions that affect them directly 4. It is a tenet of democracy PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  7. Meaning and Rationale of Participation Why Should Citizens Participate? 5. Empowers marginalized people to have a say in addressing socio-economic and political conditions that affect them 6. It can lead to shared decisions and enhance policy/project implementation PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  8. Meaning and Rationale of Participation Why Should Citizens Participate? 7. Can enhance the quality of governmental action, e.g.: • politicians are compelled to satisfy their constituents in order to remain in office • policies reflect the needs and aspiration of citizens PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  9. Meaning and Rationale of Participation Why Should Citizens Participate? 8. Can create a sense of community—increased social trust, cooperation, desire to collectively communal goals PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  10. Dimensions of Participation The Four Dimensions: • Breadth of Participation • Hierarchy of Participation • Timing of Participation • Depth of Participation PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  11. Dimensions of Participation 1. Breadth of Participation • The range (number and diversity) of stakeholders who are involved 2. Hierarchy of Participation • The level within the political hierarchy at which participation is taking place. Hierarchy and breadth of participation are inversely related. Why? PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  12. Dimensions of Participation 3. Timing of Participation • The stage(s) of a decision-making process at which stakeholders participate—e.g. initial stage, the tail end or throughout the entire process PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  13. Dimensions of Participation 4. Depth of Participation • The extent to which stakeholders influence decisions; can be shallow or deep PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  14. Arnstein’s Ladder of Citizen Participation PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  15. Adnan’s Typology of Participation 1. Passive Participation • People are told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by administrators, planners or project managers PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  16. Adnan’s Typology of Participation 2. Participation in Information Giving • People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys. No opportunity to influence proceedings leading to the decision. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  17. Adnan’s Typology of Participation 3. Participation by Consultation • People participate by being consulted and having their views listened to by ‘outsiders’. The external professionals define both problems and solutions, which may or may not be modified in the light of people’s responses. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  18. Adnan’s Typology of Participation 4. Participation for Material Incentives • People participate by providing resources (e.g. labour) in return for food, cash or other material incentives. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  19. Adnan’s Typology of Participation 5. Functional Participation • People participate by forming groups to meet pre-determined objectives of a project; may involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organization. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  20. Adnan’s Typology of Participation 6. Interactive Participation • People participate in joint analysis, which leads to development plans and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  21. Adnan’s Typology of Participation 7. Self-Mobilization • People participate by taking initiatives independent of outsiders. They may develop contacts with external institutions for support, but retain control over how resources are used. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  22. Some Mechanisms for Participation • Public hearings • Reviews and comment procedures • Community/Citizen forums • Community or neighbourhood meetings PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  23. Some Mechanisms for Participation • Community outreaches • Citizen advisory groups • Focus group discussions • Use of the internet, etc PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  24. Obstacles to Participation What are Some of the Obstacles to Effective Participation? PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  25. Obstacles to Participation • Resistance of public officials to citizen participation • Inadequate flow of information between participating stakeholders PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  26. Obstacles to Participation • Citizens may not have the resources (time, funds, etc) it takes to participate • Citizens may not have the skills to effectively participate in complex and technically demanding decision-making processes PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  27. Obstacles to Participation • Lack of effective leadership and organizational ability among citizens • Power imbalances between citizens and public officials (politicians and technocrats) PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  28. Obstacles to Participation • Inability of participating representatives to maintain effective communication with their constituents PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  29. NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BUILDING PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  30. What Is Negotiation? • It is back-and-forth communication designed to reach agreement when you and the other side have some interests that are shared and others that are opposed. —Fisher and Ury PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  31. What is the difference between negotiation and consensus building? PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  32. Difference b/n Negotiation and Consensus Building? • Consensus Building: effort meant to reach a general or widespread agreement among people/ stakeholders of an issue • Negotiation: meant to build consensus when people are confronted with conflicts PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  33. Is Negotiation Always Necessary? PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  34. When it is Helpful to Negotiate? When issues, parties and interests are defined; When disputing parties believe they would be better off negotiating than not negotiating. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  35. Why is Negotiation Important in Planning? A means to settle disputes arising from a planning process It creates opportunities for shared decisions and collective actions It leads to mutual learning among disputants PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  36. What are the Dangers of not Negotiating When there is the Need to? Sour relationships Escalation of old conflict and/or generation of new conflicts Inability to harness the benefits of teamwork Retarded progress in the community PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  37. Some Negotiation Skills • Keith Allred: • Being persuasive; • Maintaining strong relations with the other party; • Making your reasoning clear for the positions you advocate. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  38. Some Negotiation Skills • Keith Allred: 4. Understanding the other party’s interests and communicating that you appreciate their perspective; 5. Recognizing the relative importance of issues to the other party, as well as which interests you share with them and which conflict; PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  39. Some Negotiation Skills • Keith Allred: 6. Generating options that effectively address the party’s interests; 7. Apologizing for problems or harms for which you are responsible; 8. Avoiding inappropriate blaming of the other party for problems which arise; PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  40. Michael Watkins’ Principles of Persuasion 1. Invoke the common good: • emphasize collective benefits and downplay individual costs; 2. Make connections to core values: • sell your ideas by linking them to cherished values (e.g, independence, respect, and innovation); PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  41. Michael Watkins’ Principles of Persuasion 3. Heighten concerns about loss or risk: • Emphasize what makes your proposals less risky than other alternatives; 4. Apply the power of contrasts to make requests seem more reasonable: • ask for a great deal initially and then retreat to a more reasonable request. PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  42. Michael Watkins’ Principles of Persuasion 5. Strategically narrow or broaden the focus: • frame a choice that could be construed as setting an undesirable precedent as an isolated situation independent of other choices; 6. Neutralize toxic issues: • Table them or make up-front commitments that allow you to move on to other issues where you can generate momentum; PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

  43. Michael Watkins’ Principles of Persuasion 7. Refute counter-arguments in advance: • Anticipate their major reservations and address them preventively;. 8. Give your counterparts a script to persuade their constituents: • Equip those you are persuading to persuade their constituents (e.g., their bosses, peers, allies, etc) PARTICIPATION, NEGOTIATION & CONSENSUS BLDNG

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