SSM & Information Systems

1. SSM & Information Systems Wilson’s approach to defining information requirements from conceptual models. Why SSM for IS? How has it been applied?

2. Understanding of the organisation, including cultural and political analysis SSM Overview Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-view Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects - Taking action to improve ... • Debate the situation using the models (Comparison) • Identify systemically desirable and culturally feasible changes • Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable …

3. Maltese Cross Compare models with real world Find out about the problem situation Conceptual models Root definitions Define information categories Define activity- activity flows Form CPTM To design SSM for IS definition: based on Wilson’s approach Map to organisation (role-role flows) Map activities to IPP’s (Adapted from Wilson, 1990)

4. Wilson’s approach - definitions • CPTM - Consensus Primary Task Model. • IPP = Information processing procedure - a current information system, automated or manual. • Maltese Cross - matrix technique for comparing information requirements of CPTM with real world information provision (IPP’s). • Role - a position in the organisation. Roles are responsible for activities.

5. Consensus Primary Task Model (CPTM) • “What we are taking the organisation business processes to be.”(Wilson, 2001) • Still a Conceptual Model! • “The consensus of the problem-solving group that this is what they are taking the organisation unit to be doing (now or in the future).” (Wilson, 2001) • Various ways of producing this model.

6. We can compare different (primary task) models based on different W’s. One of these will be based on a neutral primary task description – something essential that no-one will dispute. Consensus models - comparing models

7. 100% consensus       Local consensus    Neutral model Consensus models - agreed activities • Take the neutral model’s activities • Examine other models’ activities • Add others after seeking agreement / accommodation • Choose activities that give a coherent model  

8. 1 Produce initial CPTM from individual models 2 Derive RD from model 3 Derive test model from RD 5 Modify RD and/or model(s) Producing the CPTM Individual models 4 Compare test model with tentative consensus model Consensus PTM (CCTA, 1993)

9. Other ways of producing CPTM • Model the Mission Statement • Already agreed • Sometimes vague, seen as irrelevant, etc. • Extract it from a model of a wider system • If you have one • May be difficult to get a definable system from the gaps • Assemble it from smaller models • Within a general framework for organisations in system terms, into which they can fit – Wilson (2001) provides one

10. Consensus models - do we need them? • We now have an agreed model - a consensus primary task model • Often regarded as essential precursor to defining information requirements • Why? • CPTM takes W’s into account when forming the model. • Some analysts believe that the variety of viewpoints should be preserved in information definition by continuing with multiple models.

11. Compare models with real world Find out about the problem situation Map activities to IPP’s Conceptual models Root definitions Define information categories Define activity- activity flows Form CPTM To design SSM for IS definition: based on Wilson’s approach Map to organisation (role-role flows) (Adapted from Wilson, 1990)

12. Information categories • “Information = data + meaning.” • Information categories are therefore not just data items, but are defined in a way that indicates how they’re used. • E.g. “Stock availability” rather than “quantity” • Define the data in each category • Lower level models tend to have more detailed information categories.

13. Simple way to show information requirements Available products Purchase orders 3 Re-order goods • What information does it require? • What information does it produce? Stock levels

14. Input/output table

15. Compare models with real world Find out about the problem situation Map activities to IPP’s Conceptual models Root definitions Define information categories Define activity- activity flows Form CPTM To design SSM for IS definition: based on Wilson’s approach Map to organisation (role-role flows) (Adapted from Wilson, 1990)

16. Activities from model X X Do... X X X Store... X X Find... X X Issue... X Input ICs Output ICs IC1 IC6 IC6 IC5 IC4 IC3 IC2 IC1 IC2 IC3 IC4 IC5 X X X Sales OP X X Stock ctrl Debtors X IPPs Maltese Cross N E W S

17. Data structures Data structures Input ICs Output ICs Maltese Cross Check order Despatch goods Orders Order record Stock levels Stock card - item no & qty Stock levels Stock card - item no & qty Orders Order record N S E W Item file - quantity available Item file - quantity available X X X Sales OP X X Stock ctrl Debtors X Current IPPs

18. Marketing ? Marketing asst 3 MD 5 1 Sales Mgr 2 6 Salesperson 4 Sales- person 8 Accounts clerk Sales Mgr 7 Sales Accounts Organisational mapping • What role is responsible for each activity? Sales Mgr

19. Wilson’s approach – summary (for you to read) • Derive primary task model(s) and gain consensus about these. (“Consensus primary task model”) • Derive the categories of information (sets of “data + meaning”) needed to support the activities, and the information categories produced by activities. Enter the categories into both East and West sides of a Maltese Cross, representing output and input. • Create the NW and NE matrices, relating the categories to the activities which will use and create them.

20. Wilson’s approach - summary (2) • Take each existing Information Processing Procedure (IPP) and identify the information categories to which the input and output data belong. This gives the bottom half of the Maltese Cross. • Using the Maltese Cross, identify omissions, duplications etc. and define any necessary additional processes, avoiding duplication. (Wilson now does activity models of these new/changed IPP’s.) • Define management roles in terms of the activities for which each manager is decision-taker. Convert the “activity to activity” information flows into “role to role” information flows.

21. Rationale (1) • “Systems analysis aimed at information systems design, if it is to make much impact, must first concentrate on the activity system which the information system is to serve.” (Checkland, Systems Thinking, Systems Practice) • So, we conceptualise the activity (served) system before the information (serving) system.

22. Rationale (2) • Data is not information. Information involves attributing meaning, and can then inform action. • IS provide knowledge to support purposeful activities - hence people need to attribute meaning to the data, otherwise we just have a “data manipulation system”. • We need to understand what meaning people will give to data - hence useful to examine viewpoints, political factors etc.

23. Rationale (3) • The activity system must contain activities which are feasible and seen as meaningful, and form a consistent whole. • We need to understand the organisational situation & the environment - a “rich understanding” is provided by SSM • We need to agree what this consistent, feasible & meaningful activity system consists of - SSM gives us a way to do this.

24. Causes of IS failure • The wrong problem is addressed • Wider influences are neglected • Analysis is carried out incorrectly • Project undertaken for wrong reason • Users change their minds • External events change the environment • Implementation is not feasible • Poor project control • (See Bennett et al.section 2.3)

25. SSADM 4+ Business Modelling An optional precursor to SSADM. Includes: • Business Activity Modelling • Business Perspectives (why) • Logical activity (what) • Business events (when) • Business Rules (how) • Work Practice Model • User roles (who) • Organisation structure & geography (where) • (See SSADM 4+ User Guide)

26. Business Activity Modelling • Business Perspectives • What the business is trying to achieve • “To be a high-quality eco-tourism provider catering for niche markets” • May be several, sometimes conflicting • Used as basis for critical success factors, measures of performance • Sounds familiar? • Could be root definitions, perhaps several based on different W’s.

27. Logical Activity Model • Business activities that must be carried out and the dependencies between them • Modelled with control systems, feedback etc. • Sounds familiar? • Could be conceptual models, especially CPTM.

28. SSM in Business Activity Modelling • SSM gives one possible approach – based on Wilson’s techniques • Create root definitions (Business perspectives included) • Derive Primary Task Models for essential activities • Derive Consensus Model • “Test against reality” The RD is “What they believe their business to be.” (SSADM4+ User Guide)

29. Link to requirements • Extract functional requirements from CPTM  Requirements Catalogue • Convert CPTM to required system Data Flow Model • Define external entities • Convert activities to processes within or outside system boundary (decompose?) • Identify information support where activities are outside boundary, & define system functions to provide it • Specify performance modelling data • Define data stores

30. Link to Work Practice CPTM contributes to Work Practice Model • Identify activities that could be automated • Map onto organisation structure and geography • User roles • Locations • May need to decompose activities

31. SSM in SSADM feasibility • SSM may be used • before a feasibility study • instead of a feasibility study • as part of a feasibility study • Detailed guidance published (CCTA, 1993)

32. SSM deliverables in SSADM Feasibility • Help define the scope of the study (rich picture) • Suggest/confirm key entities for data model (RD) • Help decide what current systems analysis to do (RD, CM) • Identify functional & non-functional requirements (RD, CM, CPTM) • Identify & scope feasibility options (CM, Maltese Cross) • Identify information requirements & gaps in existing provision (Maltese cross, Information activity table) • Identify users • Help produce & check data flow models (CPTM, information categories) • Identify service levels and management information (measures of performance)

33. SSM has also been used with… • UML – linked to use cases or activity diagrams • Other OO methods, (Schlaer-Mellor, Galvin & Lane (1999)) • DFDs – several attempts (see Mingers, 1995) • Multiview – a method for small systems, with an SSM-based first phase. Also Multiview 2 – OO. • LOTOS (formal method) • JSD (Pre-OO method) • Information Engineering (for strategy planning) • Prototyping • etc.

34. SSM & IS – summary of uses • In information strategy planning • To decide what systems should be built • As an aid to scoping systems • In a feasibility study - or instead of one • For finding information requirements • To aid acceptance of systems • Dealing with IS-related problems

35. In these two weeks, we have • Learned the structure and techniques of SSM • Seen how to map SSM models onto information requirements using Wilson’s approach • Seen, briefly, some other uses of SSM in the IS field • Discussed why we might want to do this.

36. Follow-up & preparation • Finish workbook (if you haven’t) • Prepare for seminar – section 7 of workbook • Further reading as specified in workbook, and dip into the items on Wilson’s approach.

37. References & Further Reading • On Wilson’s approach –any of these is a good start. • Wilson, (1990), Systems: Concepts, Methodologies, and Applications, 2nd edn. Wiley. Chapter 6. (Or pp. 193-247 1st edn.) • CCTA (1993) Applying Soft Systems Methodology to an SSADM Feasibility Study, London: HMSO. Chapter 4. • Grant, K & Stansfield, M, “Matching Technology with Organisational Needs: Bridging the Systems Thinking Paradigm – A Practical Approach.” http://floti.bell.ac.uk/kevingrant/paper2.htm 

38. References/Bibliography • Wilson’s approach • B. Wilson (2001), Soft Systems Methodology: Conceptual Model Building and its contribution, Wiley. • Overview of the field inc. Wilson, DFD. • J. Mingers (1995), ch. 2 in F. Stowell (ed), Information Systems Provision: the Contribution of Soft Systems Methodology, McGraw-Hill. • On rationale for using SSM for IS • M.C. Winter, D.H. Brown & P.B.Checkland (1995), “A role for soft systems methodology in information systems development,” European Journal of Information Systems4, pp. 130-142.

39. References/Bibliography • SSADM • CCTA (1993) Applying Soft Systems Methodology to an SSADM Feasibility Study, London: HMSO. Chapter 4. (Reference book in library) • CCTA (1995), SSADM 4+ User Guide, NCC Blackwell • Multiview • D. E. Avison & G. Fitzgerald (1995), Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools, McGraw-Hill. Section 6.2. • D.E. Avison & T. Wood-Harper (1990), Multiview, An exploration in Information Systems Development, McGraw-Hill.

40. References • On Failure • Bennett, McRobb & Farmer, Object-Oriented Systems Analysis and Design using UML, McGraw-Hill. Section 2.3 (both editions) • OO approach • Lane, K. &Galvin, C. (1999) “Methods for Transitioning from Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) Models to Object Oriented Analysis (OOA), developed to support the Army Operational Architecture (AOA) and an Example of its Application.” http://www.dodccrp.org/1999CCRTS/pdf_files/track_6/092galvi.pdf[Viewed October 04]