BIOLOGY POWERPOINT SLIDESHOW Grade 9 Science BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

1. BIOLOGY POWERPOINT SLIDESHOW Grade 9 Science BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Supporting Science Textbook Content while enriching the Learning Process in Junior High/Middle School

2. An interesting example of biological diversity… Alligators and the End of Dentures?!

3. The tooth fairy may be good at handing out cash for lost teeth when we’re kids, but human’s pearly whites are naturally only replaced once. If we lose a bicuspid as adults, we’re in trouble.

4. American alligators’ teeth can regenerate up to 50 times. USC researchers have uncovered the cellular and molecular mechanisms behind tooth renewal in alligators. When an alligator loses a tooth, latent stem cells are activated triggering tooth development.

5. Researchers hope this discovery could lead to tooth regeneration in adult humans!

6. BIOLOGY Concept Map Shows the concepts covered within the framework of this unit Biological Diversity Grade 9

7. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY - Outline

8. BIODIVERSITY - Ecosystem Diversity “Biodiversity is the variety of species and ecosystems on the Earth and the ecological processes of they are a part of.”Living things interact with non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) parts of the ecosystems they share. As these abiotic and biotic factors vary from one ecosystem to another, ecosystem diversity refers to these differences. Variations between and within ecosystems around the world affect the types and numbers of species that can live in each of these ecosystems. To determine the biological diversity of an area, biologists use a measurement called a diversity index. This compares the diversity of species in a certain area with the total number of organisms in that same area, or ecosystem. It is primarily used to check on the health of an ecosystem – a healthy ecosystem has a high diversity index.

9. BIODIVERSITY - Ecosystem Value Having variation in an ecosystem enables some of the organisms in that ecosystem to survive because of their higher level of resistance and survival adaptations, when certain species die off. This is important in order to maintain the ecosystem. Sacrificing one part of the ecosystem to save the main parts is also necessary sometimes. This is why foresters might decide to burn one part of a forest to save the part of the forest that they know will be able to survive other factors that are threatening to destroy the entire forest.

10. BIODIVERSITY - Species Diversity A species is a group of organisms that have the same structures and can reproduce with one another. Species Diversity is the number of different species in a particular area (also referred to as species richness ) weighted by some measure of abundance such as number of individuals, or biomass. However, it is common for biologists to speak of species diversity even when they are actually referring to species richness. Another measure of species diversity is the species evenness, which is the relative abundance with which each species is represented in an area. bacteria cowbird red fox tiger salamander

11. BIODIVERSITY - Species Diversity An ecosystemwhere all the species are represented by the same number of individuals has high species evenness. An ecosystem where some species are represented by many individuals, and other species are represented by very few individuals has a low species evenness. The most successful life form seems to be the insect. There are many different species that can potentially help other species, like the Pacific Yew Tree, by producing medicines. Biological diversity is important for the health and survival of natural communities. Taxol, found to be effective in controlling different types of cancers, is extracted from the bark of the Pacific Yew Tree.

12. 9B Review Biological Diversity Why should we care? Graphing Review

13. The future?

14. BIODIVERSITY - Genetic Diversity Genetic diversity, a form of biodiversity, is the variety of different types of genes in a species or population. Genetic diversity refers to certain variations between members of a population.Genetic diversityis variation of individual genes, which provides an opportunity for populations of organisms to adapt to their ever-changing environment. The more variation, the better the chance that at least some of the individuals will have a variation that is suited for the new environment, and will produce offspring with that variation, so that they can, in turn, reproduce and continue the population into subsequent generations. With the interdependence between biological and genetic diversity; changes in biodiversity result in changes in the environment, requiring subsequent adaptation of the remaining species. Changes in genetic diversity, particularly loss of diversity through loss of species, results in a loss of biological diversity. the banded snail

15. 9A Review Biological Diversity Why should we care? Graphing review

16. The future?

17. BIODIVERSITY - Community Diversity Community Diversity occurs within populations of organisms living within a particular ecosystem. Distribution - When individuals of the same species live within the same area and share the same resources, a population of exists. When a number of different populations share a common ecosystem, a community exists. Populations and communities are not distributed evenly on the Earth. The pattern of distribution is much the same as the overall biodiversity of our planet. More variety and numbers of populations and communities near places where it is warm (tropical rainforests and coral reefs) and less variety and numbers where it is cold (Arctic and Antarctic).

18. BIODIVERSITY - Community Diversity In northern Canada there are large populations of those species found there, but there are not as many different plant and animal species as there are in other parts of Canada. Large herds of caribou, polar bears, wolves and millions of arctic hare make up the majority of the animals you will find. The species of wolf, and polar bear are also found in Russia and northern Europe., Canis lupus, Ursus maritimus , In contrast, hundreds of thousands of species (in small populations) can be found in the rainforests of Central and South America. The reason that Canada supports large populations, with less diversity is the extreme environment and seasonal variations, which restrict their food supply. Organisms living in this ecosystem have a broad niche with adaptations that enable them to survive the extreme changes occurring there. These species are considered to be generalists – able to spread over large areas.

19. BIODIVERSITY - Classification System Linnaean Taxonomy was developed by Carolus Linnaeus and is used as the scientific name of the organism. The greatest innovation of Linnaeus, and still the most important aspect of this system, is the general use of binomial nomenclature, the combination of a genus name and a single specific epithet to uniquely identify each species of organism. For example, the human species is uniquely identified by the binomial ‘Homo sapiens’. No other species of animal can have this binomial. The naming of each organism uses the genera (genus) and species (species) to identify each organism and how they are related to each other organism. This classification system was much more reliable than previous systems, because it used structural characteristics of the organism. Before Linnaean taxonomy, animals were classified according to the way they moved, and their habitat. All species are classified in a ranked hierarchy, originally starting with kingdoms although domains have since been added as a rank above the kingdoms. Kingdoms are divided into phyla (singular: phylum) — for animals; the term division, used for plants and fungi, is equivalent to the rank of phylum. Phyla (or divisions) are divided into classes, and they, in turn, into orders, families, genera (singular: genus), and species (singular: species).

20. BIODIVERSITY - Classification System All organisms have been classified into 5 Kingdoms based on their structural differences. Animalia (animals) Plantae (plants) Fungi (yeasts, moulds and mushrooms) Protista ( mostly single-celled organisms) Monera (bacteria) Each of these 5 Kingdoms are then further classified as … Kingdom phylum class order family genus species A species is a particular group of organisms that have the same structure and can reproduce with each other

21. ADAPTATION - Structures and Functions The special characteristics that enable plants and animals to be successful in a particular environment are called adaptations.  Camouflage, as in a toad's ability to blend in with its surroundings, is a common example of an adaptation. The combination of bright orange and black on a monarch butterfly is an adaptation to warn potential predators that the butterfly is poisonous and prevent it from being eaten. Adaptations afford the organism a better chance to survive in its surroundings. These special features have evolved over long periods of time, through the process of natural selection.

22. ADAPTATION - Structures and Functions All animals live in habitats. Habitats provide food, water, and shelter which animals need to survive, but there is more to survival than just the habitat. Animals depend on their physical features to help them obtain food, keep safe, build homes, withstand weather, and attract mates. These physical features are called called physical adaptations. Physical adaptations do not develop during an animal's life but over many generations. The shape of a bird's beak, the number of fingers, color of the fur, the thickness or thinness of the fur, the shape of the nose or ears are all examples of physical adaptations which help different animals to survive. An example of this are the finches Darwin discovered and studied on the Galapagos Islands

23. ADAPTATION - Structures and Functions

24. NICHE A niche describes the interrelationships of a species or population in an ecosystem. It includes how a population responds to the abundance of its resources and enemies (e. g., by growing when resources are abundant, and predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it affects those same factors (e. g., by reducing the abundance of resources through consumption and contributing to the population growth of enemies by falling prey to them). The abiotic or physical environment is also part of the niche because it influences how populations affect, and are affected by, resources and enemies. The description of a niche includes descriptions of the organism's life history, habitat, and place in the food chain. No two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time. Sort of like, each piece of a puzzle can only fit in one spot, in the overall picture.

25. NICHE - Relationships of organisms Each and every species depends on many other species within an environment in order to survive and prosper. Food Chain Food Web Food Pyramid These represent different types of ongoing relationships between and among all organisms, within a particular environment.

26. NICHE - Distribution of Ecosystem Resources Resource Partitioning, Differentiation or Separation is the action which enables competing species to share resources by accessing these resources in different ways. This natural selection process drives competing species into different patterns of resource use or different niches. The process allows two species to partition certain resources so that one species does not out-compete the other as dictated by the competitive exclusion principle; thus, coexistence is obtained through the differentiation of their realized ecological niches.

27. SURVIVAL - Interdependence of Species Interdependence is about or when a species depends on other species to perform different roles. All living organisms are included. Species interdependence is self-evident - the subsystems in a system constitute the ecology and the balance it maintains, while the population-groups and the symbiotic relations existing and evolving within the system demonstrate the 'interdependence'.

28. SURVIVAL - Interdependent Relationships - Symbiosis A different type of interdependence is an association, within a certain population, between members of different species. There are different types of symbiotic relationships: Commensalism – in which one of the participating members benefits, but the other does not, and there is no harm done to that organism. (barnacles on a whale) Mutualism – both organisms benefit from the relationship. (lichen growing in the Arctic Tundra - algae and fungi - benefit each other) Parasitism – one organism benefits while the other organism (the victim) is harmed. (the parasite usually doesn’t kill the host, because the host represents the parasite’s food supply. (tapeworm in a human host)

29. SURVIVAL - Interdependence Of Species Interspecies competition happens when two or more species need the same resource. This type of relationship helps to limit the size of populations, of the competing species. Species Population Limiting Factors Survival Factors Resource partitioning is the action, which enables competing species to share the resources by accessing these resources in different ways, involving less direct competition.

30. SURVIVAL - Natural Selection Natural selectionhappens when factors in the environment determines, or ‘selects’ which individuals, within a species, will be able to survive. Many organism have adaptations that defy our understanding of life. Scientists therefore hypothesize that life may exist in the harsh environments on other planets. Living in an environment at 110oC or -35o C is rare, but possible because of adaptations organisms have to live in these extremes. If they are able to live long enough to reproduce, then those individuals with their ‘survival adaptations’ (characteristics) will have offspring with similar survival characteristics.

31. SURVIVAL - Environmental Change Some of the most immediate effects of recent climate change are becoming apparent through impacts on biodiversity. The life cycles of many wild plants and animals are closely linked to the passing of the seasons; climatic changes can lead to interdependent pairs of species (e.g. a wild flower and its pollinating insect) losing synchronization, if, for example, one has a cycle dependent on day length and the other on temperature or precipitation. The Life Cycle of the Butterfly In principle, this could lead to extinctions or changes in the distribution and abundance of species

32. VARIATION Variation within a population, of a single species, is called variability. Variability is important if there is a sudden or drastic change in the environment, in which the species lives. When a species has a great deal of variation, then, some of the individuals within that species will likely survive when there is change. Examples of variability include:

33. VARIATION - Inherited or Non-Inherited Variation is one of the most critical aspects of species survival. This variation may not always be as easy to find as color usually is, because it may be a behavioral tendency or a genetic (cellular code) modification that enables some individuals within a species to survive, while others, of the same species, will perish. Inherited(heritable) characteristics are those traits which are passed on to offspring directly from their parents. These traits are passed on by way of the genetic material that is combined from the parents during the process of sexual reproduction. Heritable traits include, structural and distinguishing characteristics, such as eye color, hair type, skin color and earlobes.

34. VARIATION - Inherited or Non-Inherited Not all characteristics are inherited. Some depend entirely on the environment. Non-inherited characteristics are acquired and not necessarily passed on from generation to generation. Athleticism, artistic ability, leadership qualities are all learned during the early years of life. Some variations may be influenced by interactions with the environment. These variations are also non-inherited. Examples include: change in the pigmentation of skin color throughout the seasons due to the sun, height and weight can be influenced by diet. Scars, injuries, clothing, hairstyle, make-up, and cosmetic surgery may change a person’s characteristics, but they are not caused by genetics. One way that scientists study the relationship between genetics and the environment is to observe the similarities and differences between identical twins that have been separated at birth and raised in different environments. The interactions between a person’s genetics and the environment are very complex and are constantly being debated.

35. VARIATION - Discrete or Continuous Discrete variations are differences in characteristics that have a definite form. This includes those individuals, within a species, that have either one characteristic, or the single, other variation, of the characteristic. Examples of discrete variation include: tongue rolling ability, blood groups, earlobe attachment, hairline, etc. Continuous variations are differences in characteristics that have a range of possible variations. The multitude of variations may include such traits as: height, shoe size, hand span, skin color, hair color, etc.

36. REPRODUCTION - Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. All of the offspring are identical to the parent. There are different types of asexual reproduction: Binary Fission - only single-celled organisms reproduce in this way. The cell splits into two cells and each one is identical. (bacteria, amoeba, algae) Budding - the parent organism produces a bud (a smaller version of itself), which eventually detaches itself from the parent and becomes a self-sufficient individual - identical to the parent. Coral also reproduces in this way, but do not detach themselves (hydra, yeast, coral) Spore Production - spores are similar to seeds, but are produced by the division of cells on the parent, not by the union of two cells. One parent may produce many spores, each of which will grow into a new individual, identical to its parent. (fungi, green algae, moulds, ferns) Vegetative Reproduction - is the reproduction of a plant not involving a seed, including; cuttings, runners, suckers, tubers. (coleus plant, spider plants, strawberries, aspen, potatoes)

37. REPRODUCTION - Sexual Reproduction - Animals Sexual reproduction in animals involves gametes (reproductive cells that have only one role - to join with another gamete during reproduction). The male gametes are called sperm cells, and the female gametes are called egg cells(ova). During mating, the sperm cell and the egg cell unite to form a fertilized combination of cells called a zygote. This zygote is the first of many cells of a new individual. This zygote will begin to divide into two cells and this continues to be repeated over and over resulting in the development of an embryo. This embryo develops into a multi-cellular organism inside the female (in most mammals) or, outside (in an egg shell) in other animals.

38. REPRODUCTION - Sexual Reproduction - Plants Sexual reproduction in plants involves gametes as well, male gametes and female gametes joining, during fertilization, to produce a zygote and then an embryo. Most plants produce both male and female gametes, while some produce one or the other only. Pollencontains the male gametes and is found on the stamen. Ovulescontain the female gametes and are found in the pistil. Pollinationoccurs when pollen is transferred from the anther of the stamento the stigma of the pistil. Cross-pollinationoccurs when pollenfrom one plant is carried to the stigma of another plant by wind, water or animals (bees or butterflies). Cross-fertilization occurs when a grain of the pollen forms a long tube, which grows down the style into the ovary. Gametes unite to produce a zygote, which then develops into an embryo. This usually happens inside a seed, protecting the embryo and providing food (cotyledon) for the embryo when growing conditions are right. Plants which are produced, as a result of cross-fertilization, are not identical to either plant.

39. REPRODUCTION - Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Organisms That Reproduce Sexually & Asexually Most plants that produce seeds can also reproduce asexually (cuttings, runners). Depending on the environmental conditions the amount of energy varies, enabling the plant organism to control its population. Sponges and Hydra are organisms that can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most plants that produce seeds can also reproduce asexually (cuttings, runners). Depending on the environmental conditions the amount of energy varies, enabling the plant organism to control its population. Mosses produce asexual spores in the early part of their life cycle and then egg and sperm cells are produced in a later part of the same cycle.

40. REPRODUCTION - Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Variation usually helps a species survive when the environment changes. Asexual reproduction does not require any specialized cells to produce a new plant. It can therefore produce many plants very quickly. This is an advantage in places where the environment doesn't change very much (bacteria). By building a large population of organisms very quickly the species is able to thrive. The great disadvantage is that when the environment changes, all of the organisms will die, if they do not have the ability to adapt to the change. Sexual reproduction has the advantage of providing lots of variation within a species, helping it to survive when the environment changes. The main disadvantage is that this process takes a lot of energy. This means that they can only produce small populations.

41. REPRODUCTION - Cell Division and Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. All of the offspring are genetically identical to the parent. In single celled organisms, binary fission enables the parent cell to split its contents equally between the two new cells. Prior to this division, the parent cell duplicates its DNA and when the split takes place each new cell receives a complete exact copy of the DNA, of the parent. In multi-cellular organisms the process that produces two new cells with the same number of chromosomes is called Mitosis.

42. REPRODUCTION - Cell Division in Plants and Animals Sexual reproduction usually involves two individual organisms. The offspring that are produced from this union have genetically different characteristics, half from one parent and the other half from the other parent - making a unique offspring. During sexual reproduction, the specialized sex cells (gametes) unite to form a zygote, which develops into the new organism. When a male gamete and a female gamete unite, meiosis takes place. Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces cells with only half the DNA of a normal cell. This process involves two cell divisions, not one.

43. REPRODUCTION - Comparison of Meiosis & Mitosis

44. DNA DNA is the blueprint that is passed on from the parents to the offspring - is found in a molecule of the cell nuclei. This molecule, desoxyribonucleic acid, (DNA) is the inherited material responsible for variation. All living organisms contain DNA in their cells. DNA is the inherited material responsible for variation. Characteristics are passed on from one generation to another within a species through the genetic code of the parents. This genetic code is called DNA. Captive breeding programs enable scientists to control populations of species at risk of extinction. Using modern technology, geneticists and staff from zoos around the world can analyze the genetic code of the species they are trying to save and use it to introduce variation that will help the species survive when the environment changes.

45. DNA – The Genetic Code DNA was discovered prior to 1944. All DNA molecules contain exactly the same chemicals, but the way the chemicals combine determines the characteristics of the organism. To solve the structural questions that DNA posed, four scientists, working in groups of two, revealed that the same chemical building blocks could carry a wide range of instructions needed for diversity.

46. DNA – The Genetic Code Watson and Crick modeled the structure of DNA. The DNA molecule is like a ladder twisted into a spiral. The sides of the ladder are the same in all DNA molecules, but the rungs are what make the variations. Each rung pairs up two of the following chemicals: guanine (G), cytosine (C), adenine (A) and thiamine (T) The arrangement of these four chemicals creates the code that the cells are able to interpret.

47. DNA - Chromosomes DNA contains all the instructions, which create the organism's characteristics. The multitude of characteristics for each organism means that there is a lot of DNA in any one cell. This DNA is arranged in the cell in compact packages, called chromosomes. Every human cell contains 46 chromosomes. In order to have a complete human organism, all 46 of the chromosomes must be present. Not all organisms have the same number of chromosomes (Dogs have 78, cats have 38). Every cell of a human contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (dogs 39, cats 19). Not all of the chromosomes from species to species are the same, which accounts for the different characteristics between the species.

48. DNA - Genes • A single geneis an uninterrupted segment of DNA, which contains the coded instructions for the organism. • Researchers found out that (by working on the fruit fly): • Genes are located in the chromosomes • Each chromosome has numerous gene locations • Genes come in pairs • Both genes in a pair carry DNA instructions for the same thing • Specific characteristic genes occupy matching locations on the two chromosomes • DNA code may not be exactly the same in both locations • Offspring inherit genes from both parents. • The genes exist in an array of possible forms that differ as to their exact DNA sequence. These variations in forms are called alleles. The ultimate combination of the chromosome pair is what makes the variation possible - combining the different variations of different characteristics to create a unique variation.

49. GENETICS To view a pdf of this image from the Human Genome Project this link is provided ... http://www.genome.gov/11007524

50. GENETICS Genetics is the study of heredity - traits inherited from parent to offspring. Blending Theory In ~1850, scientists thought that some fluid substance in the blood of animals or in the sap of plants was the hereditary material. The combination of the parent's characteristics in the offspring was thought to occur by a "blending" of this fluid. If so, a white dog that mated with a brown dog should produce only tan puppies; A tall person who had a child with a short person should produce all "medium-size" children, etc...clearly not the case! Even though people recognized problems with this theory, it was the top theory of the day! Keep in mind, though, that in the mid-1800s, very little was known about cell structure, let alone the concepts of genes and DNA.