Contents

1. Motivation and Performance:Theories of work motivation & performanceLondon 2014Andrew Eriksen-Brown

2. Contents Content theories • Introduction to content approaches • ‘Classic’ content/need theories • Evaluation of content theories • Concluding comments on content theories Process theories • introduction to process approaches • Expectancy theory • Equity theory • Concluding comments on process theories Goal-directed theories • Introduction to goal setting • The core elements of goal setting theory • Why does GS seem to work? • Links to other theories • Strengths of the GS approach • Challenges to GS • Concluding comments on goal setting 16. Control Theory and Action Theory

3. Needs/Content theories Content approaches

4. Content Theories: attempt to categorise needs. • Important for several reasons: • Theoretically, most motivation theories explicitly or implicitly acknowledge the importance of needs • Methodologically, needs very difficult to measure • Practically, insight into how to structure motivating environments Needs - definitions Maslow (1954) – a need influences a person’s activities until it has been satisfied Cherrington (1991) – an internal state of disequilibria or deficiency that has the capacity to energise or trigger a behavioural response Arnold et al (2004) – a biologically based desire that is activated by a discrepancy between actual and desired states.

5. Forms of content theories • Content/needs theories can be subdivided in terms of how they describe the origins of needs. • Maslow, Alderfer, MacGregor and Herzberg assume needs are innate, instinctive and universal. • McClleland (and Kehr) assume needs are derived from cultural conditioning, and are learned. This view is compatible with individual differences in terms of needs.

6. Self-actualisation Growth Esteem Relatedness Social Safety Existence Physiological 2. ‘Classic’ content/need theories Maslow, 1954, 1968 Alderfer ERG, 1972 Intrinsic/ growth Extrinsic/ deficiency Arranged in a hierarchical level of prepotency Arranged in a hierarchy, but all can be active at once

7. Most conventional views Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Hygienes Dissatisfaction No dissatisfaction Herzberg’s proposal Motivators No satisfaction Satisfaction 2. ‘Classic’ content/need theories (2/3) • Herzberg’s two-factor motivator-hygiene theory (1959, 1966) • Factors intrinsic to job (“motivators”) cause satisfaction and are also associated with motivation and performance • Extrinsic factors (“hygiene”) are associated with dissatisfaction and demotivation • Further, job satisfaction was not unidimensional, but bi-dimensional. Only the ‘motivators’ have an impact on motivation.

8. Classic content/needs theories (3) • Herzberg used critical incident technique, accountants and engineers asked to describe “When you felt a/exceptionally good and b/exceptionally bad about your work? • Method did not work well with blue collar workers. • ‘Motivators’ included achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement…and with some juggling-growth. • ‘Hygiene’ factors included company policies, supervisory style, co-worker relations, and, most famously of all, pay. • Hygiene factors equate with Maslow’s lower growth needs, motivators to Maslow to his higher growth needs.

9. 2. ‘Classic’ content/need theories (4) • McClelland’s (1953, 1961, 1971) learned need theories • Need for achievement (n Ach) “Behavior toward competition with a standard of excellence” (McClelland et al, 1953) • Need for power (n Pow) • Need for affiliation (n Aff) • Need for autonomy (n Aut) • Once learned these needs act as personal predispositions affecting the perceiving of work situations and influencing the pursuit of goals • Believed needs could be learned in adulthood. • N Achs want difficult but achievable tasks • Often assessed through TAT • McClelland’s research is inventive and controversial • TATs • Rise and fall of civilizations due to achievement motive inferred from literature

10. 3. Evaluation of content theories • Main idea: when needs are unmet we feel motivated to meet them • Content theories have been important in generating ideas about fundamental human needs-provide taxonomies of needs, • Have “comonsense appeal” ie comprehensible(Porter et al 2003) • Parsimonious • Applicability • Often imprecise, eg five possible interpretations of Herzberg (King 1970) • Notwithstanding some recent research (eg Wicker 1993, Ajila 1997),approaches have received overall weak empirical support. • Do not allow sufficiently for individual differences-though McClelland is an exception here. • No clear links to specific behaviour; no insight into HOW (i.e., process)

11. 5. Introduction to process approaches • Process approaches seek to explain ‘how’ motivation happens • The outcome of process theories is often a decision as to whether to invest or withdraw effort/ motivation • Main process theories are expectancy theory and equity theory • Important for several reasons: • Theoretically, fleshed out ‘black box’ of individual’s work motivation • Methodologically, conscious cognitions open to measurement • Practically, motivation ‘processes’ open to management manipulation.

12. Comparing content and process theories

13. 6. Expectancy theory - introduction • Many versions of expectancy theory, Galbraith & Cummings, Graen, Kanfer, we will focus on two ‘classics’ – Vroom, and Porter & Lawler • Behaviour is viewed as purposeful, goal-directed and based on conscious intentions • Staw (1984) suggests later models of ET integrate cognitive, need, reinforcement theories

14. 6. Expectancy theory – Vroom’s VIE theory (1964) • Employees apply effort (referred to by Vroom as motivational force) to tasks they a) think they can do, b) will lead to outcomes, which c) they find attractive. Formally: • EffortPerformance expectancy (E) – an individual’s subjective probability that effort on a task will lead to performance • PerformanceOutcome expectancy (referred to as instrumentality, I) – an individual’s subjective probability that a level of tasks performance leads to a set of outcomes • Valence of outcome (V) – the attractiveness of anticipated outcomes to the individual • EIV are a multiplicative relationship • Assumes employees out to maximise payoff/pleasure

15. ET – example: motivation to write an exam script

16. Perceived EffortPerformance probability Ability Perceived PerformanceReward probability Effort Performance Rewards Role perceptions Perceived value of rewards 6. Expectancy theory – Porter & Lawler (1968) Expectancy calculus

17. 6. Expectancy theory – evaluation • Empirically, Van Eerde & Thierry (1996) meta-analysis of 74 published empirical studies concluded: • VxIxE adds no value beyond separate components. That is, components work additively not multiplicatively • ET more strongly related to intentions rather than behaviours (performance, effort, choice) • Results more promising for within-person than between-person studies • Measures of V, I and E generally poorly constructed • Methods limited, tend to be cross-sectional, self-report • Limited direct research on the theory since the 1980s.

18. 6. Expectancy theory – evaluation Conceptually: Strengths • Reflects complexity, process, plenty of practical applications to pay, leadership, HRM • Useful analytical tool. Weaknesses • Expectancy theory ignores habitual behaviour and subconscious motivation • Hedonistic assumption too simplistic • Overly rational • Geared towards deliberative decision making rather than fast processes, in-the-moment action In summary, expectancy theory has some validity (components, but not multiplicative aspect), some testability, comprehensiveness, applicability and links to performance but not very parsimonious.

19. 7. Equity theory Equity theory (Adams, 1965) can be presented as a series of steps: • Individuals compare their ratio outcomes:inputs to comparison other • If outcome:input ratio of individual and comparison unequal, inequity exists • The greater the inequity (either under- or over-reward) the greater the distress) • The distress motivates you to restore equity. Strategies include: cognitive distortion, changing inputs (effort) or outcomes, changing the comparison other, leaving the relationship, acting on others Equity broadened into organizational justice research (1980s) and in particular procedural justice • Equity relabelled as distributive justice • Procedural justice: are the procedures allocating rewards fair? Considers criteria such as system impartiality, collecting information, consistency, employee involvement in decision making, adequate explanations of decisions, timely feedback

20. 7. Equity theory - evaluation Empirical: • Studies generally supportive for attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction), much less so for behaviour • Hundreds of studies on distributive and procedural justice • Designs generally weak: cross-sectional, single source self-report Conceptual issues: • Endless possibilities over what is compared and with whom • Vague predictor of behaviour • True motives behind injustice In summary, equity theory has some validity (face, predictive), some testability, comprehensiveness and applicability but questionable links to performance and not very parsimonious.

21. Goal Setting (and Control Theory)

22. 9. Introduction to goal setting theory • For advocates, GS is “a motivational technique that work” (Locke & Latham, 1990) • A goal is “the aim or end of an action” (Locke & Latham, 1996) • Similar, but with subtle differences to intention, plan, purpose, aim, end, objective, striving, etc • Goal setting theory is concerned with conscious, purposeful, goal-directed actions. • Goal setting specifies the factors that affect goals, and their relationship to action and performance

23. 10. The core elements of goal setting theory Both motivation and job performance will be higher when four conditions are met: • The goals are clear and specific • The goals should be difficult • The goals should be accepted (i.e., goal commitment) • Feedback should be provided Theory also makes statements about job satisfaction.

24. 11. Why does GS seem to work? Goals motivate because: • Goals result in clear expectations and help to focus and direct effort • Allows individuals to compare present performance with what is required • Assumption that falling short of the goal activates individual to work harder to achieve • Difficult goals activate search for task strategies • Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards through goal completion In summary, goals provide direction, effort and persistence – three elements of motivation.

25. 13. Strengths of the GS approach • It is in many ways a model approach: • Clear, testable propositions • Lends itself to experimental manipulation • Simple, general, powerful, links to action & performance, can be managed • Considerable support for certain GS elements • However, mainly investigated short-term goals

26. 14. Challenges to GS • Qualitative/complex goals? Conflicting goals? Group goals? • Goals may overly narrow focus; goal obsession,risk taking, unethical behaviour (Ordonez) • Goals can result in failure, rarely acknowledged • Goal setting better suited for certain individuals (e.g., high self-efficacy, self-esteem, conscientious, etc) • Concerns about the narrow range of methods, designs and samples used (e.g., logging crews, solving anagrams) • Managerialist.

27. 15. Concluding comments on goal setting • Impressive evidence for core elements of goals setting • Good potential as an organizing framework for motivation theories • And for many other theories of relationships and emotions • Lots of unanswered issues • Narrow range of applied methodologies • The ongoing continual identification of boundary conditions risks parsimony, comprehensiveness and utility of GS

28. Control Theory • “Human life is a continual process of establishing goals and intentions and adjusting current patterns of behaviour so as to more closely match those goals.” Carver and Scheier 1988. • Control theory is concerned with goal achievement-”on-line motivation”. • Draws on principles of homeostatics (Cannon 1932) and cybernetics (Weiner 1948)

29. Control Theory (2) Basic principles: Systems/people compare their present position (input function) in relation to a goal or referent standard. Behaviours are adjusted (output function) to reduce any perceived discrepancies. These processes together form a negative (discrepancy reducing) feedback loop.

30. Control Theory 2

31. Control Theory ( 3). • Control theory controversial: • Locke (1996).“Machine metaphor not applicable to conscious, rational, behaviour” • But offers a coherent explanation for the role of emotion: eg why failure in a small goal can have a large emotional effect. • Wide range of application-not merely simple goals, but all forms of directed behaviour, eg being a good spouse, citizen etc • Proximal!

32. Action Theory • ‘Action is goal orientated behaviour’ (Frese and Sabini 1985). • Action sequences include goal setting, mapping of the environment, planning and monitoring of the execution, feedback processing (Frese and Zapf 1994). • Goals must be distinguished from mere wishes. • Actions theory is described by Frese as ‘meta-theory’ so is compatible with GST.