CHAPTER 5: Gender and Sexism

1. CHAPTER 5:Gender and Sexism Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach Second Edition Danica G. Hays and Bradley T. Erford

2. Defining Gender and Sexism • Gender determined by both biology and culture • Counselors need to keep in mind: • Not everyone conforms to binary male/female system • Gender socialization plays a critical role in development • Gender role socialization occurs as early as age 2 and across all contexts of our culture • U.S. culture tends to view sexism as a problem in other countries • Gender is not the same as sexuality

3. Defining Gender and Sexism Cont. • Transgender defined: • Multiple definitions exist but tends to refer to individuals whose gender identities and expressions do not conform to societal norms • Urgent transgender community needs • Genderqueer – An increasingly used term embraced by youth who do not identify with traditional gender pronouns • Intersex – Refers to individuals whose reproductive or sexual anatomies do not fit the socially constructed male (XY) or female (XX)

4. Sexism • Sexism - the oppression of individuals based on gender. • Historically exploitation & dominance of women by men • Often intersects with other identities such as race/ethnicity and sexual orientation • Examples of sexism • internalized sexism - women begin to believe negative messages • male privilege - unearned rights & societal privileges afforded to men based on their biological sex

5. Gender and Counseling Considerations • Counselors need to: • Become aware of personal assumptions, values, and biases regarding gender • Learn about client’s worldview of gender and gender issues • Counseling considerations: • Client-counselor matching • Exploration of racial and cultural differences • Communication styles • Counselor self-awareness

6. Counseling Girls and Women • Strides and defeats for women’s right advocates • American Psychological Association (2006) guidelines for psychological practice for girls and women • Diversity, social context, power • Professional responsibility • Practice applications

7. Counseling Girls and Women Continued • Higher risk than men for a variety of mental health issues: • Depression • Eating disorders • Anxiety • Gender role expectations • Sexual double standard • Role is to reject or accept male advances • Lowered socio-economic status • Life-long developmental implications

8. Counseling Men • Men are socialized in Western culture • Double standards: “Men don’t cry” alongside of “Men help raise children” • Normative male alexithymia = inability to put feelings into words • Patterns of parenting • Theories of male depression • Code of masculinity

9. Counseling Men Continued • Male gender role conflict = theory of how traditional gender role socialization can result in negative consequences for men who remain rigid in changing circumstances • Four general patterns: • Success, power, completion • Conflicts between work and family relationships • Restricted emotionality • Restricted affectionate behavior between men

10. Counseling Men Continued • Counselors might consider to: • Set goals early in counseling • Maximize men’s socialized preference for overcoming obstacles through effort • Manage resistance • Apply a transgenerational approach

11. Counseling Transgender Individuals • ACA endorses specific competencies for working with this population • Counselors need to: • Have a strong understanding of the differences between “sex” and “gender” • Eliminate discrimination in the counseling setting • Question the DSM-IV’s inclusion of gender identity disorder • Carefully consider the client’s personal goals, self-definitions and experiences of discrimination • Focus on the client’s existing resilience

12. Historical Context of Sexism • Patriarchy: • Originally a system that benefitted both men and women • Evolved into an entrenched system that afforded men greater power and restricted women’s roles • Became a system of ownership • World War II and Women’s Return “Home”

13. The Feminist Movement • 3 Waves of Feminism as a Social Justice Movement • Feminisme from France • Women’s Liberation Movement • Third Wave Feminists

14. Cultural Intersections of Gender • Important to note that more within-group that between-group differences may exist • African-Americans: Gender roles often defy majority culture norms • Asian American / Pacific Islanders • Strict gender guidelines for behavior and acceptable social distance between men and women • Varies depending on amount of acculturation • Often a source of tension between different generations especially when children are biracial or multiracial and experience multiple cultural gender norms

15. Cultural Intersections of Gender Cont. • Latino(a)/Chicano(a) Americans: • Machismo and Marianismo • Arab Americans: • Family as central foundational structure • Importance of behaving well as a reflection of others • Strict fathers; nurturing mothers • Boys are raised to be heads of households • Girls are expected to remain virgins until marriage

16. Mental Health Consequences of Sexism • Women & Depression • Rates are twice as high for women than men • Eating Disorders • One of the greatest mental health consequences of sexism is disordered eating & negative body image • Early exposure to the media about “ideal” body image • 3-10% of females aged 15 to 29 years meet diagnostic criteria • Thought to be coping strategies for women with identity issues & managing sense of control over environment

17. Physical Consequences of Sexism • When females are objectified they are more likely to be targets of violence • Females face higher rates of: • sexual assault/trauma • child sexual abuse • increased exposure to occupational & environmental hazards • disordered eating • interpersonal violence • intimate partner violence • development of PTSD

18. Physical Consequences of Sexism Cont. • 3 stages of sexual abuse recovery 1st stage - ensuring safety from abusers & free of stressors. 2nd stage - making meaning of trauma by reviewing details of experience & acknowledge associated feelings. 3rd stage - reconnect with sense of self with important relationships. • Counselors should conduct thorough trauma assessments with every female client

19. Physical Consequences of Sexism Cont. • Worell & Remer’s (2003) 3-part model addressing intimate partner violence • Framework provides clinicians with an understanding of the impact of violence on women & how sexism reinforces an undervaluing & abuse of women • Only applies specifically to heterosexual relationships

20. Social Consequences of Sexism • Underevaluation of females for women of color & narrow definitions of gender roles: • Restricts career development • Restricts opportunities for women • Disparity in wages • Imposter Phenomenon - women’s internalized doubt in their own abilities and fear of others finding out that they are not as capable as they really are

21. Addressing Sexism in Counseling • Be aware of own beliefs regarding men and women • Be aware of how own race/ethnicity, gender, age, class status, ability level, and sexual orientation affect the counseling relationship • Refrain from assuming client’s presenting problems are related to their gender identity or expression • When working with clients of color, integrate ethnic, gender, and sexual identities to achieve maximum wellness • Assess for experiences of prejudice, harassment, discrimination, and violence in relation to sexual orientation, gender, and gender expression • Integrate the advocacy competencies that empower female and transgender clients

22. Resilience to Sexism and Social Justice • Resilience - the degree of self-acceptance, engagement in positive relationships, and mastery of contextual environments • Survivors of child sex abuse report self-care, connection with community, and social activism among their resilience strategies • Counselors can help clients focus on building further resilience to sexism

23. Resilience to Sexism and Social Justice Cont. • Counselors may want to consider: • Finding ways to work with community and government agencies to provide presentations and/or create support groups for survivors of trauma • Working with schools, community colleges, and university centers to identify collaborative opportunities to stage events that support and remember survivors and victims of abuse and hate crimes • Becoming aware of opportunities for social activism around issues of sexism so they may educate clients on these events as potential experiences of empowerment and healing