Introduction to Criminology CRJ 270 Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

Introduction to Criminology CRJ 270 Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

5 Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives

Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions: • What was the purpose of the Human Genome Project (HGP), and what is its significance for modern biological theories of crime? • What role do genetics and heritability play in contemporary explanations for crime? • How does brain dysfunction relate to criminality? • How do body chemistry theories – including those involving diet, blood sugar levels, environmental contaminants, and hormones – explain crime? • What are biosocial theories, and what role does the gender ratio problem play in contemporary criminology? • What are the policy implications of modern biological theories of crime?

The Human Genome Project • Testing of Connecticut school shooter Adam Lanza’s DNA to determine if he possessed any abnormalities. • The human genome refers to a complete copy of the entire set of human gene instructions. • Genes are made of DNA and carry coded instructions for making everything the body needs. • Chromosomes are bundles of genes. continued on next slide

The Human Genome Project • International research project mapping the human genome. • Determine complete chemical sequence of the human DNA • HGP sequenced entire genomic sequence of a reference human genome • Current focus of genomics • Finding variants from reference sequence

The Human Genome Project • Knowledge developed by HGP may have major implications for individuals and society. • Genetic knowledge can have significant implications for criminal justice • What can we discover from the HGP research? • What is it expected to accomplish? • Support the development of public policy options related to crime prevention and offender treatment.

Genetics and Heritability • Dutch research found male descendants of a “criminal family” had high proportion of violent crime arrests. • Researchers H. Hilger Ropers and Han Brunner suggest that because males have only one X chromosome, they are more vulnerable to any defective gene, while women (with two X chromosomes) have a sort of backup system. continued on next slide

Genetics and Heritability • Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA): • Enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline. • Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that transmit the flow of electrical impulses. • Men with mutated genes do not produce enough of this enzyme. • Excess amounts of MAOA linked to aggression. • Resulting in uncontrolled urges and ultimately, criminal behavior

Genetics and Heritability University of Texas Health Science Center (S.A) • Pleasure-seeking gene (Allele or DRD2 A1) may play a role in deviant behavior, addictions, violence. • The gene is normally involved in controlling dopamine flow • What does it do? • Diminishes dopamine function. • May lead to people engaging in dopamine-like experiences, such as drinking or using drugs. Or in some cases to violence and/or murder.

Genetics and Heritability Researchers – Capsi and Moffitt • Heritability linked to callous-unemotional behavior. • Can childhood maltreatment lead to a risk factor in adulthood? • Genes and environment work together to produce significant antisocial behavior. • What was discovered? • In some cases, genetic pre-dispositions and their interaction with the surrounding social and physical environments combine to produce delinquency.

Future Directions in the Study of Genes and Crime • Explanatory power of heritability limited – may apply only to environments existing at the time of a given study • If population or environment changes, heritability may change also • Genes appear to be both the cause and consequence of our actions – they enable rather than determine human action.

The Dysfunctional Brain • Position emission tomography (PET) scans found lower glucose levels in prefrontal cortex of murderers • Prefrontal cortex dysfunction may predispose someone to crime rather than being a direct cause of crime • Frontal brain hypothesis. • A gene defect that leads to a communications breakdown in the brain predisposes people to schizophrenia. continued on next slide

Figure 5-1 The Human Brain Showing the Prefrontal Cortex and the AmygdalaSource: Schmalleger, Frank J., Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

The Dysfunctional Brain • Allergic reactions to foods have been linked to violence and homicide. • Foods such as milk, citrus fruit, chocolate, corn, wheat and eggs may lead to swelling of the brain and stem. • Physical injuries, emotional trauma, disease, longer term exposure to stress can lead to changes in the brain • Link between stressors in the social environment and brain structure continued on next slide

The Dysfunctional Brain • Neuroplasticity • Brain can alter its structure or function in response to experience or injury

Body Chemistry and Criminality • Body chemistry is influenced by factors such as eating habits, vitamin deficiencies, environmental contaminants, and the endocrine system • You really ARE what you eat!

Ingested Substances and Nutrition • Early research linked excess sugar consumption to crime but the current evidence on the sugar/behavior link is unclear. • Dan White – “Twinkie Defense” • He murdered San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and city Councilman Harvey Milk. • This was contradicted in 1994 by the New England Journal of Medicine. continued on next slide

Ingested Substances and Nutrition • Some food additives (MSG, dyes, artificial flavorings) may be linked to violence • Coffee and sugar may trigger antisocial behavior • Vitamins, other nutrients may have behavioral impact. • Higher intake of omega 3 fatty acids lead to a reduction of hostility.

Environmental Pollution • Several studies have found a link between industrial and environmental pollution and violent behavior • Correlation between juvenile crime and exposure to lead and manganese • Prenatal substance exposure may lead to higher rates of conduct disorders, delinquency, psychiatric problems

Hormones and Criminality • Testosterone • Relationship between high blood levels of testosterone and increased male aggressiveness • Effect may be moderated by social environment • Small changes in female testosterone levels also linked to personality changes continued on next slide

Hormones and Criminality • Androgens – male hormones • High blood levels linked to aggression in boys but not girls. • A study revealed that boys with a higher level of androgens in their blood exhibited the most persistent aggression. • Fluctuations in female hormones may also be linked to crime. • PMS defense – Christine English was exonerated in a British court with this defense. continued on next slide

Hormones and Criminality • Serotonin – behavior-regulating chemical • Elevated blood levels/lower brain levels linked to violence in men • Imbalance between levels of serotonin and dopamine highly associated with psychopathic traits continued on next slide

Hormones and Criminality • Other hormones implicated in delinquency and poor impulse control include cortisol and T3 (thyroid hormone)

Climate, Weather, and Crime • Temperature is the only weather variable consistently related to crime. • Researchers Ellen Cohn and James Rotton have found temperature to be related to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence, and disorderly conduct. • Relationship moderated by temporal factors. (Temp, time of day, day of week) • Uncomfortably hot and cold temperatures keep people apart. • Research findings consistent with routine activities theory continued on next slide

Climate, Weather, and Crime • Possible link between barometric pressure and violent crime • Historical correlation between high temperatures, extreme rainfall patterns, and violence

Figure 5-2 Assault as a Function of TemperatureSource: E . G. Cohn and J. Rotton, “Assault as a Function of Time and Temperature: A Moderator-Variable Time-Series Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 72 (1997), pp. 1322–1334. Data used with permission.

Biosocial Criminology • Crime and Human Nature (1985) • Comprehensive theory of crime that included constitutional factors • Constitutional factors which contribute to crime. They include: • Gender • Age • Body type • Intelligence and • Personality continued on next slide

Biosocial Criminology • Biosocial criminology – Anthony Walsh • Biological factors do not operate in an environmental vacuum, environmental factors do not operate in a biological vacuum. • Interaction of biology and the social and environmental conditions.

Figure 5-3 Selected Biological Factors Recognized by Biosocial Theory

Gender Differences in Criminality • Gender ratio problem • need for an explanation of the fact that men are more involved in crime than women • Early explanations focused on culture and the social environment – lack contemporary validation. • Females make up 51% of the population in the U.S., but are arrested for less than 20% of all violent crimes and almost 38% of property crimes. continued on next slide

Gender Differences in Criminality • Biosocial criminologists say that if we admit that there is something about gender itself that is responsible for the observed differences, the problem is resolved. • Does culture play a role in criminality? • Culture has changed, has the proportion of crime committed by women risen?

Evolutionary Theory • Evolutionary perspective suggests that behavioral traits are manifestations of multiple genes working independently and synergistically in response to the environment. continued on next slide

Evolutionary Theory • Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory • Propensity for crime commission evolved as part of the male reproductive strategy • A particular neurochemistry, characteristic of males, increases the probability of crime among males relative to females

Policy Implications of Biological Theories • Steven Pinker claims social scientists unjustly ignore the biological basis of human behavior and replace it with three myths: • The blank slate • The Noble Savage • The Ghost in the Machine continued on next slide

Policy Implications of Biological Theories • No genes for criminal behavior but genes may affect brain functioning and influence chances of learning socially unacceptable behavior patterns

Critique of Biological and Biosocial Theories • Fail to predict criminality accurately • Methodological problems • Studies in the area have often been based on small, non-representative samples. • Findings difficult to generalize • Do not explain regional, temporal variations in crime rates continued on next slide

Critique of Biological and Biosocial Theories • Cannot explain why some crimes are more likely to occur in certain parts of the country, certain types of communities, among members of specific subcultures rather than in others • Some biosocial criminologists have been accused of racial and class bias

Introduction to Criminology CRJ 270 Instructor: Jorge Pierrott