言语 误解的潜在性：理论阐释

1. 言语误解的潜在性：理论阐释 山西大学外国语学院 吴亚欣

2. Example One • Subject: Hi, Mary. How is the work going? • Experimenter: What do you mean, “How is it going?” Do you mean mentally or financially? • Subject: I mean “How is it going?” What’s the matter with you? • Experimenter: Nothing. Could you just explain a little clearer what you want to know? • Subject: Skip it. How is that new project coming? • Experimenter: What do you mean, “How is it coming?” • Subject: You know what I mean. • Experimenter: I really don’t. • Subject: What’s the matter with you? Are you sick?

3. “Language use and communication are in fact pervasively and even intrinsically flawed, partial, and problematic” (Coupland, Giles & Wiemann, 1991, p.3)

4. “duringtheprocessofinterpersonalcommunication,participantstoleratearather-highdegreeofnon-acknowledged,unresolvedpotentialmisunderstanding”(Blum-Kulka&Wiezman, 1989)

5. Example Two • The co-pilot repeatedly called attention to the bad weather and to ice building up on other planes: • Co-pilot: Look how the ice is just hanging on his, ah, back, back there, see that? • Captain: Side there. • … • Co-pilot: See all those icicles on the back there and everything? • Captain: Yeah. • He expressed concern early on about the long waiting time between de-icing:

6. Co-pilot: Boy, this is a, this is a losing battle here on trying to de-ice those things, it (gives) you a false feeling of security, that’s all that does. • Shortly after they were given clearance to take off, he again expressed concern: • Co-pilot: Let’s check these tops again since we been setting here awhile. • Captain: I think we get to go here in a minute.

7. When they were about to take off, the co-pilot called attention to the engine instrument readings, which were not normal: • Co-pilot: That don’t seem right, does it? (3-second pause). • Ah, that’s not right. (2-second pause) (Well)… • Captain: Yes, it is, there’s eighty. • Co-pilot: Naw, I don’t think that’s right. (7-second pause) • Ah, maybe it is. • Captain: Hundred and twenty. • Co-pilot: I don’t know.

8. The takeoff proceeded, and thirty-seven seconds later the pilot and co-pilot exchanged their last words: • Co-pilot: Larry, we’re going down, Larry. • Captain: I know it. • ((Sound of impact)) • (Tannen 1994: 92-93)

11. “…all words have multiple meanings. These meanings are narrowed down by the context in which the words are used.” (Heyman, 1994, p.9)

12. 指示性(Indexicality) • 语言的意义依赖于语境

13. Example Three • The car you saw today and intend to buy tomorrow, somebody saw yesterday and intends to buy today. • (Sign displayed in a Mazda showroom) • (Cited from Grundy, 2000, p. 22)

14. Example Four • I mean if you come this way you’re into there’s a road here and there’s a circulating ring road and if you come this way there’s a very tight corner here. (Grundy, 2000, p.36)

15. Example Five • (Costello) On the Saint Louis team we have Who’s on first, What’s on second, I Don’t Know’s on third. • (Abbott) That’s what I want to find out. I want you to tell me the names of the fellows on the Saint Louis team. • (Costello) I, I’m telling you Who’s on first, What’s on second, I Don’t Know’s on third. • (Abbott) You know the fellow’s names? • (Costello) Yes. • (Abbott) Well then, Who’s playing first? • (Costello) Yes. • (Abbott) I mean, the fellow’s name on first base.

16. (Costello) Who. • (Abbott) The fellow playing first base for Saint Louis. • (Costello) Who. • (Abbott) The guy on first base. • (Costello) Who is on first. • (Abbott) Well, what are you asking me for? • (Costello) I’m not asking you, I’m telling you, Who is on first. • (Abbott) I’m asking you: Who’s on first?

17. “The meaning (of language) depends on our interpretation, which is based on the context; at the same time, the context is also an interpretation. Meaning (of language) and context each provide the grounds for the other .” (Heyman, 1994, p. 10)

18. Example Six • 这次全国语用学研讨会是最有地方特色的一次研讨会。

19. 反身性（Reflexivity） • 语言的反身性：语言使用的语境要靠语言的意义来界定。或者换句话讲，语言的意义和语境之间是互相界定的。

20. Example Seven • One day as David was walking down the hall, his boss called him into her office and said, “David, what do you think of affirmative action?” David’s immediate response was “It certainly hasn’t hurt our company. Especially since we depend on government contracts for much of our work.” Looking serious, his boss then responded, “Yes,I know, but I was thinking of affirmative action with respect to my son who is applying to law school this year. He’s afraid that he might not get in unless he scores really high on the law aptitude test because so many women and minority groups are applying” (. (Cited from Heyman, 1994, p. 18)

22. “Much –even most- meaning in conversation does not reside in the words spoken at all, but is filled in by the person listening. Each of us decides whether we think others are speaking in the spirit of differing status or symmetrical connection. The likelihood that individuals will tend to interpret someone else’s words as one or the other depends more on the hearer’s own focus, concerns, and habits than on the spirit in which the words were intended. ”(Tannen, 1990, p.37)

23. 主体性（Subjectivity） • 主体性：人对世界认识及其表征的个体差异性。 • 差异的可能原因：交际的环境，交际者的性别、性格、喜好、情感状态、交际时所关心的事情、意图、习惯、成长中所接受的文化等。

24. Example Eight • Egyptian pilots radioed their intention to land at an airbase on Cyprus and the Greek traffic controllers reportedly responded with silence. The Greeks intended thereby to indicate refusal of permission to land, but the Egyptians interpreted silence as assent. The result of the misunderstanding in this case was the loss of a number of lives when Greeks fired on the planes as they approached the runway. (Saville-Troike, 1985p.11)

25. Example Nine • (A is preparing a meal in the kitchen. B is in the living room next to it. Bothrooms are connected by a door.) • (8.1) A: I want to hear the news. Keep the door open. • (8.2) B: That's not possible. Our neighbour is at home. • (8.3) A: Keep the door open. I am coming. • (E. Weigand / Journal of Pragmatics 31 (1999) 763-785 777)

26. 心理倾向性(Psychologicalbiases) • 心理倾向指的是由于受心理或社会因素的影响，人会做出非理性的错误判断的倾向，是认知科学和社会心理学研究的一种现象，可分为动机倾向（motivational biases）和认知倾向（cognitive biases），前者指的是人们倾向于进行和自己的需要和愿望相一致的推理，避免做和自己的需要和愿望相悖的推理，受此类动机影响，很容易导致非理性的推理错误；后者是由于受人们认知能力所限，无法顾及和加工所有可为其所用的信息，而导致系统性的偏离常规和标准的推理错误。无论是哪种心理倾向，都是在非理性的、主观心理因素的影响下表现出的对多个可能的判断和结论中的某一个判断的偏好（Kruglanski and Ajzen 1983）。

27. 匹配倾向（matching bias） • 注意倾向（attentional bias） • 信念倾向（belief bias） • 证实倾向（confirmation bias） • 代表性（representativeness）可及性（availability）、基点与调整（anchoring and adjustment）三种经验推理方法 • …….

28. Example Ten • （成人A和小孩B一起散步。A手里拿着B想要玩的皮球和B在路上采的花。过了一会儿，A让B拿住皮球。） • （1）A: Can you hold the ball? (A gives B the ball) • （2）B: And you keep the flower. • （3）A: Do you want it? • （4）B: No, you keep it. • （摘自Weigand 1999）

29. Example Eleven • (席间) • A: 今天早上真冷，都打不着车。 • B：今天你打车上班的？ • C：现在的车都先进了，天再冷，一般也可以打着。 • A：第一下没打着。 • B：我还以为你打的上班了呢。 • C：你怎么会这么理解呢？难道你不知道天冷的时候车不容易发动吗？ • B：知道啊!A前一段时间因为经常堵车，就没开车，打过一段时间的。 • C：噢。这点我不知道。

30. Example Twelve • Old Lady 1 : “Is this stop Bloomington ?”An old • lady asked the bus driver. • Driver 1 : 　“No , Ma’am. ” • Old Lady 2 : “Well , please tell me when we get • there ,”she requested. ← • Driver 2 : “I’ll do that ,”promised the driver.

31. Later , the driver got careless and • passed through Bloomington before • he realized it . He apologized to the • other passengers , turned around , • and drove back. Then he said to the old lady : • Driver 3 : 　“This is the town where you wanted • to get out . ” • Old Lady 3 : “Who wanted to get out ?” • Driver 4 : “You did. ” • Old Lady 4 : “No ,”she said ,“my daughter told • me that when I pass through this • town , I should take my pills. ” • （转引自宗世海，2005）

32. “no assurance that communication will be certain or even relatively trouble free”(Fish, 1989, p.42)

33. Thank You