Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996)

1. Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996) • All research presupposes a world-view,a collection of fundamental objects, natural laws, definitions, and above all a definition of what research is. • Kuhn called a world-view, paradigms • Mature science have established paradigms • Example of mature sciences are chemistry, physics, geology; whereas, economics and psychology are immature sciences.

2. Paradigm • Thomas Kuhn popularized the term in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1996) by using it to describe how science works. According to Kuhn, scientific explanations of the world are controlled by a paradigm, some model of how the world is expected to work and into which actual observations are fitted, even if the fit is not very exact. As inexact fits accumulate, it becomes more apparent that the dominant paradigm is inadequate as a model of reality. When enough contradictions exist, a paradigm revolution occurs and a new paradigm is adopted. • The word paradigm comes from the Greek paradeiknunai and means "to compare." In science and philosophy it has the same basic meaning as in common usage: a model or instance used as a basis or example for further work.

3. Need for Paradigms • Research requires paradigms • Paradigms are models of the way the world works • Without paradigms research is a random collection of observations lacking unification of structure into a whole. • Without paradigms, it is not possible to decide which are and which are not important observations

4. Dominant Paradigms As a field matures, one paradigm becomes the dominant one. Once paradigms is established research progresses quickly

5. Paradigm guides direction of Research It becomes clear with aid of paradigm which research areas are fruitful. These areas are ones not totally explained Paradigms give concepts and laws to build on.

6. Paradigm Shift Paradigm shift occurs when old paradigm shown inadequate What is defined as research is reevaluated Concepts turn upside down. Earlier research is reinterpreted

7. Real research • Real Research occurs during a paradigm shift • Once a paradigm dominates, research becomes puzzle solving • Puzzle solving is not research due to answers known beforehand

8. Example of Puzzle Solving After Newton explained solar system, later scientists using Newton’s theory predicted The presence of the then unknown planets Neptune, Uranus, and Pluto

9. What New Paradigms Do • Discovery of new paradigm results in new questions being asked and old questions abandoned • Newton saw gravitation as a property of matter. Earlier theories tried to find a mechanical explanation as whirlpools in space or angels.

10. Paradigms are Incommensurable • Paradigms have different world view. It is difficult to compare them • Consequently, science defines truth relative to a paradigm and not absolutely. Truth is a story

11. Science • Science is a conformist society which present only the currently accepted theory Consequently science defines reality relative to the accepted paradigm • Students are educated into the accepted paradigm and to ignore alternative paradigms • The society of science determines what scientists observe