PEDU 6210 Education Policy and Society

1. PEDU 6210Education Policy and Society Topic 5 Education Policy and Social Integration: Education for Citizenship and/or Nationality

2. iii. The Dialectic of Education for Citizenship and Nationality

3. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • To recapitulate • The state is conceived as a sovereign power apparatus (legitimate monopoly of use of physical force), which has successfully established over residents of a definite territory. It is the “engineering” outcome of a power-steering system and/or struggle between power-steering systems. • The nation is conceived as a community of sentiment, which emerges “spontaneously” from frequent communications among residents of a territory. It is the “practical” outcome of the lifeworld built on common-languages and territory.

4. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • To recapitulate • However, human history especially in the past five centuries has witnessed many different forms of dialectical relationship between these two types of human groupings. For example…

5. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • For example • Monarchy-state over nations in France and subsequently republic-state (Jacobin-state) over nations in France • The state of the United Kingdom over nations in the British Isles • Migrant-states over natives in American continents and Australia • Empire-states over nations, e.g. Ching Empire over nations in China, and subsequently modern republic-state over nations in China • Nazi- and Fascist-states over nations in Germany and Italy • Sovereign states gaining independence from former colonizers and striving to build national sentiment of solidarity among various ethnic groups

6. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Are nation modern? Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives in the studies of nation • The first theoretical dichotomy consists of: (Calhoun, 1994, 1997, Jenkins, 2008) • Essentialism: Essentialism approaches identity as essentials or attributes, which are naturally endowed or structurally determined. This perspective takes gender identity, national identity or class identity as given facts and preexisting reality. Hence, the formations of identities are conditioned, shaped, or determined by sets of essentially fixed traits, such as biological sex, skin color, birth place, position in relation of production, etc.

7. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives … • The first theoretical dichotomy … • Constructionism: Constructionism approaches identity as socially constructed reality, which are negotiable and maneuverable. They are on the one hand collectively constituted in social process or even social movement, and individually constructed in deliberately presentations and articulations

8. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives … • The second theoretical dichotomy is made up of (Smith, 1986; Gellner, 1997) • Primordialism: Primordialism tends to attribute the basis of identity to some essences that are in-born, inherited from ancestoral past, or accumulated through cultural tradition within a given social entity. These primordial ties may include kinship tie, consanguineous bondage, homeland boundedness, or connections to some traditional mythomoteur (myth-symbol complex).(Smith, 1986, Pp. 57-68).

9. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Two prevailing dichotomous perspectives … • The second theoretical dichotomy is made up of (Smith, 1986; Gellner, 1997) • Instrumentalism or Modernism: It approaches identity as psycho-social phenomena grown out of functional requisite or instrumental necessity of a given social system. For instance, sentiment of solidarity or even readiness to scarify shared among members of the colonized nations in fighting for independence against the colonizers are instrumental in national liberation movement; or sense of commonality and cooperation permeated among members of industrialized and urbanized society are functional to the complex division of labor in industrial capitalism.

10. Instrumentalism/ Modernsim • Citizenship identity • National identity Essentialism Constructionism • Ethnic identity • Familial identity Primordialism

11. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Institutionalization of democratic-civic model of modern nation-state: History of Institutionalization of constitutional-democratic states and civil-democratic citizenship in the past two centuries has made the territorial-civic model become the ideal-typical model of nation-state formation in different parts of the globe. As globalization spread, ethnic-sedentary communities are forced to transcend its primordial bases and be integrated political community based on solidarity of citizenship participation and practice.

12. Dialectic of the Nation-State: The Emergence of the Conception of Ethnicity • Institutionalization of democratic-civic model of modern nation-state: • Through the institutions of constitutional-democratic state, residents within the territory of a sovereign state are entitled to participate on equal bases in political affairs as well as in socio-cultural and economic activities. • Through these equal-participatory practices of citizenship, it is anticipated (as Habermas advocates) that a modern nation in the form of community of sentiment (or even community of prestige) of equal entitlement of citizenship

13. Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality within Modern Nation State • The empirical paradox among ethnicity, nation and state • “Most countries today are culturally diverse. According to recent estimates, the world's 184 independent states contain over 600 living language groups, and 5,000 ethnic groups. In very few countries can the citizens be said to share the same language, or belong to the same ethnonational group.” (Kymlicka, 1995, P. 1)

14. Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality within Modern Nation State • The empirical paradox … • “The distinction between states and nations is fundamental to my whole theme. States can exist a nation, or with several nations, among their subjects, and a nation can be coterminous with the population of one state, or be included together with other nations within one state, or be divided between several states. There were states long before there were nations, and there are some nations that are much older that most states which exist today. The belief that every state is a nation or that all sovereign states are national states, has done much to obfuscate human understanding of political realities. A state is a legal and political organization, with the power to require obedience and loyalty from its citizens. A nation is a community of people, whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, a common culture, a national consciousness. Yet in the common usage of English and of other modern languages these two distinct relationships are frequently confused.” (Seton-Watson, 1977, P.1)

15. Synthesis: Modern Citizenship as Means of Reconciling Ethnicity and Nationality within Modern Nation State • Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality • In light of the two historical or even historic movements taken place at the end of the twentieth century, namely the German unification and constitution of the European Union, Habermas suggests a thesis to reconcile the structural contradictions among states, nations and ethnic groups and the identity conflicts among citizenship, nationality and ethnicity.

16. Synthesis: … • Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality • Re-conceptualization of the nation • Classical meaningof the notion of nation: In its “classic usage , …nations are communities of people of the same descent, who are integrated geographically in the form of settlements or neighborhoods, and culturally by their common language, customs and traditions, but who are not yet politically integrated in the form of state organization.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 22)

17. Synthesis: … • Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality • Re-conceptualization of the nation … • Meaning of nation in the 21st century: “The meaning of the term ‘nation’ thus changed from designating a pre-political entity to something that was supposed to play a constitutive role in defining the political identity of the citizen within a democratic polity. …The nation of citizens does not derive its identity from common ethnic and cultural properties but rather from the praxis of citizens who actively exercise their right. At this juncture, the republican strand of ‘citizenship’ parts company completely from the idea of belonging to a pre-political community integrated on the basis of descent, a shared tradition and a common language.” (Habermas, 1994, p. 23)

18. Synthesis: … • Jurgen Habermas’s conception and nationality • Two types of nationality: In connection of the new conceoption of nation, Habermas makes a distinction between two types of nationality • Hereditary nationality, which is identity built on elements such as common descent, custom, language or even ancestral homeland. They are ascribed from one’s traditional-cultural heredities • Acquired nationality, which is identity and commitment individual citizens who consciously strive to achieve collectively in the preview of civil-democratic citizenship and constitutional-democratic state. • Therefore, Habermas proposes that hereditary nationality should give way to acquired nationality. (Habermas, 1994, p. 23)

19. Synthesis: … • T.K. Oommen’s conclusion • On the pessimistic part, “given the above, it is unrealistic to expect that a common civilization which embraces the multiplicity of nations and ethnies will emerge even in a distant future; it is a wrong agenda to be pursued.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 243) • On the optimistic part, “one must recognize the role of citizenship as an instrument that can reconcile the two identities of nationality and ethnicity and the competing demands of equality and identity.” (Oommen, 1997, p. 243)

20. Sovereign power Multi-ethnic States Citizenship Schooling & Education Acquired Nationality Territorial-civic Nationalism Sovereign Power Modern Nation-State Primordial-Ethnic Nationalism Schooling & Education Hereditary Nationality Ethnicity Languages Religions Customs Descent Ancestoral Homeland

21. Universal Education as Means of Integration in Modern Nation-State • Universal education as part of project of state formation and citizenship development • Universal provision of education as the primary basis of equality of future citizens of modern state • Universal education as means of construction of identity of citizenship • Entitlement to universal provision of equal education as citizenship rights to literate and intellectual developments as well as equal opportunities to socio-economic developments • Participation in universal provision of equal education as citizenship obligation to participate in common socio-cultural activities of the modern state

22. Universal Education as Means of Integration in Modern Nation-State • Universal education as part of the project of nation formation and nationality development • Universal education as means to nurture common language of communication among future citizenship • Universal education as means of construction of identity of acquired nationality • Universal education as means of construction of identity of hereditary nationality • Education as part of the project of de-ethnification and national homogenization: Universal education as means to integrate ethnic identities into identity acquired nationality

23. The Constituents of Education for both Nationality and Citizenship

25. National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens: The Dilemma of Identity Education in HKSAR • Politics of identity: In light of the theoretical perspectives of social constructionism, e.g. Michel Foucault’s conceptions of institutionalized identity and Henri Tajfel’s theory of categorization and social identity, a new area of study has emerged in the field of identity studies, namely politics of identity. In counteracting to perspective of essentialism and primordialism, theorists and researchers locate the process of identity formation within the arena of power or the field of force. …

26. National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens: The Dilemma of Identity Education in HKSAR • Politics of identity: ….. Accordingly, identification processes are construed as political projects, in which the individuals or groups can negotiate, maneuver, or even struggle for or against given social categories, labels, stigmas, or legal statuses inflicted on them. More specifically, formation of social identity is conceived as political bargaining and power struggle between insiders (we) and outsiders (they) of the respective social group, which strive to establish a self-defined identity or to resist an externally imposed identity. (Calhoun, 1994; Parekh, 2008) ….

27. National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens: The Dilemma of Identity Education in HKSAR • Politics of identity: ….. Accordingly, politics of identity may manifest in number of forms, namely • Politics of unity; • Politics of difference; and • Politics of recognition

29. Politics of unity: It refers to the kind of politics of identity, which strive to forge commonality, homogeneity and unity among members of designated population. One of the most salient projects of politics of unity in modern history are the political or even military actions and public policies taken by modern states in assimilating and nationalizing the diverse population resided within the territories of given sovereign states, such as the unification movements in Germany and Italy, the “melting-pot” project in the United States of America, the nation-building project of the Chinese nation 中華民族, and the nation-building projects in most former colonial states after independences. National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens

30. 國民教育的課程內容 • Rhetoric of politics of unity • 「祖籍家鄉」 • 「祖國同胞」 • 「同根同心」 • 「血濃於水」 • 「中華兒女」 • 「文化精髓」 • 「民族源流」 Marginalization, oppression & domination of the politics of identity of HK residents of non-Chinese ethnicity

31. Politics of difference: It refers to the kind of politics of identity, which strives to constitute distinctiveness, uniqueness and difference of members of a given group in comparison with other social entities and especially the society at large. The political actions and strategies waged may be initiated in two directions. One the one hand, the politics of difference may be internally initiated and articulated by members of the group attempting to “make the difference”. For example the feminist movement initiated by women who argue that women are different from men and therefore entitled to differentiated treatments in most public policy areas. …. National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens:

33. Politics of difference: …. On the other hand, the politics of difference may be initiated and violently imposed upon a selected fraction of population in a society at large, say a nation state. For example, in Nazi German the Jewish population were differentiated and excluded from participating in regular activities of all social institutions. Most generally, all the discriminative policies that colonizers impose upon the colonized in all colonial situations is another example of externally imposed politics of difference. National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens:

34. 國民教育的課程內容 • Rhetoric of politics of difference • 外藉華人的身份認同政治學 • 台灣的本省與外省人的身份認同政治學 • 台灣的統、獨份子之間的身份認同政治學 • 藏獨份子的身份認同政治學 • 疆獨份子的身份認同政治學 • 香港人的身份認同政治學: • 「蝗蟲禍港」議論 • 「雙非孕婦」議論 • 「跨境學童」議論… Intensifying & radicalizing the sense of separatism among minority ethnic groups and alighting & inflaming ethnicity conflicts

35. Politics of recognition: In the 1990s, a group of prominent philosophers and social scientists collaborated a book entitled Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Gutmann, 1994) With reference to the pluralist and multicultural context of their own societies, Charles Taylor (makes reference to Quebec, the French-speaking region in Canada), Jurgen Habermas (makes reference to the re-unified West and East Germany) and Anthony Appiah (makes reference to the multi-ethnic and multicultural situations of the United States) concertedly advocate another kind of politics of identity, namely politics of recognition. … National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens:

37. Politics of recognition: … They propose that politics of identity should go beyond “proceduralist liberalism” (Taylor, 1994, P. 58) which endorses procedural justice and formal due-process in treating pluralist and multiculturalistic situations; and substantively and genuinely recognize the difference in the collective goals specifically inhered by a particular social group with a society at large. Furthermore, out of this recognition of difference public measures will be adopted not only to tolerate or be hospitable towards this difference but to strive hard to guarantee it survival and sustainability. National Identification of the HKSAR Citizens:

38. 國民教育的課程內容 • In Search of a rhetoric of politics of recognition • ???

39. Identity of Hong Kong Residents Characteristics of identity of Hong Kong Chinese The concept of diaspora: Diaspora refers to “any body of people living outside their traditional homeland.” (Oxford English Dictionary) Scholars of cultural studies have used the concepts to refer to cultural phenomena in colonial and post-colonial situations, in which cultural identities have been dis-embedded and re-embedded into hybridized cultural and meaning artifacts. (Hall, 1997) Hong Kong as a culture of flow: From the very beginning, Hong Kong had been a space of flow for Chinese to “flow” out and back in China. As historian Elizabeth Sinn characterized

40. Identity of Hong Kong Residents The concept of diaspora: ….“Hong Kong was the major embarkation and disembarkation port for Chinese emigrants as they left China and as they returned. By 1939, over 6.3 million Chinese emigrants had embarked at Hong Kong for foreign destination. Even more significantly, over 7.7 million returned to China through Hong Kong. It is the transit point for transportation of fund and goods, personal communication and general information — even the remains of deceased emigrants. It was the centre for personal, family, kinship, business, and other types of networks that linked China and the outside world. Hong Kong’s native place of organizations, with affiliations around the world, often acted like headquarters, reflecting its pivotal position in the diaspora.” (Sinn, 1989; Quoted in Siu, 2009, p. 61)

41. Identity of Hong Kong Residents The concept of diaspora: Cultural process of individualization: As Ulrich Beck characterized, individualization is a process by which an individual dis-embed from the cultural community and identity which they have acculturated and re-embed into another community and identity. Hong Kong has acted as the transit port, in which Chinese were and are individualizing themselves from China and into the world.

42. Identity of Hong Kong Residents • Cultural process of individualization:

43. Identity of Hong Kong Residents The concept of diaspora: Hybridity in Hong Kong culture: For more than a century, Hong Kong Chinese had forged their cultural identity within this diasporic context. They had strived to “straddle the world and nation”. (Siu, 2009) Anthropologist Helen Siu has presented the following figures as exemplary embodiments of such diasporic cultural identity

44. Identity of Hong Kong Residents The concept of diaspora: Hybridity in Hong Kong culture: “Sir Robert Ho Tung, Sir Ho Kai, and Ng Ting Fong were notable examples of Hong Kong-based, Western-educated elites who remained committed to the Chinese Tradition. In their lives and careers, they contributed a great deal not only to the well being of the Chinese community in Hong Kong but also to China’s modern, nationalist efforts. On such figure who took his Chineseness seriously was none other that Dr. Sun Yat-sen.” (Siu, 2009, p. 63) These prominent historic figurers of Hong Kong resident may be characterized as the embodiment of a culture of hybridity of multiculturalism.

45. Identity of Hong Kong Residents The dialectics of de-sinicization and re-sinicization: Among scholars engaging in Hong Kong studies, the thesis of de-sinicization and re-sinicization has served explicitly or implicitly as underlying theme in most of the theories of Hong Kong development. By de-sinicization, it refers to the processes or situations in Hong Kong history, in which Hong Kong society as a whole or in parts, such as in economic, cultural, or political aspects, was secluded from mainland China. By re-sinicization, it refers to the reverse process or situation in history, in which Hong Kong society re-integrated with the mainland China.

46. Identity of Hong Kong Residents The dialectics of de-sinicization and re-sinicization: De-sinicization and re-sinicization in economic development De-sinicization and re-sinicization in political development De-sinicization and resinicization in cultural development

47. Multiple identities in Hong Kong institutional developments

48. Multiple identities in Hong Kong institutional developments

49. Multiple identities in Hong Kong institutional developments

50. Political Identity of HK Residents in the Context of One-Country-Two-Systems The contextual footings of the identity of resident in HKSAR The state context of two systems The autonomy in internal governance The heteronomy in external sovereignty The national context of the majority Chinese Chinese nation in essentialist-primordialist perspective Chinese nation in constructivist-modernist perspective HK Chinese identity in the context of pluralistic unity多元一體格局 The multinational context of residents in HK as global metropolitan