Lecture 7 Determiners (II) – Articles

1. Lecture 7 Determiners (II) – Articles

2. Teaching Contents • 7.1 Generic and specific reference • 7.2 Articles in use with different classes of noun

3. English has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article. As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article—the zero article. It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles—the definite, the indefinite, and the zero article.

4. 7.1 Generic and specific reference • 1. Generic reference • When we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any member representative of a class of people or things. All the three forms of article (the, a(n), and zero) can be used generically to refer to the members of a class as a whole. • a) The definite article + a singular count noun • --- The horse is an animal. • --- This is easier for the teacher than for the student. • --- The tiger and the cat belong to the same family of mammals.

5. b) The definite article + adjective or adjectival participles • --- There will always be such opposite as the right and the wrong, the good and the evil, the beautiful and the ugly. • --- The unexpected always happens. • c) The indefinite article + a singular count noun (common in giving definitions) • --- A horse is an animal. • --- Bill became a successful doctor. • --- A tractor is a powerful motor vehicle used in agriculture.

6. d) zero article +Plural and noncount nouns • --- Horses are animals. • --- Those young men are teachers, not students. • --- She likes music • The three articles all can be used to express generic reference. But they have different focuses of attention. • --- The horse is an animal. • --- A horse is an animal. • --- Horses are animals.

7. •The definite article expresses the members of the class as a whole. （表示的是整个类属，表示与别的种类相区别的类属） • •The indefinite article is used to emphasize the common feature that every member of the class has. (着重表示一个类属中每一成员都具有的特点 • The zero article often focuses on the collectivity of the members of the class. (多着眼于这个类属中的成员的集合体)

8. 2. Specific reference • Specific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not denote a class of people or things in general but a particular specimen of the class. • 1) Definite specific reference • Definite specific reference implies that a person or a object referred to can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer. Definite article is used. • --- He ordered a book. The book has not arrived. • --- Be careful when you cross the street.

9. a) Anaphoric reference • The word anaphoric means “pointing backward”. When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as anaphoric reference • e.g. I have two children: a boy and a girl. The boy’s name is John. The girl’s name is Mary.

10. b) Cataphoric reference • The word cataphoric means “pointing forward. When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the article and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is cataphoric reference. • --- I like the film that I saw last night. • --- You will find the laboratory in the building with plenty of trees in front.

11. c) Situational reference • Situational reference depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer or on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear. The definite article is mostly used, but zero article can also be used. • --- Open the door, please. • --- How is the cough today. • --- Ask nurse to put the child to bed. • --- Mother says that we should study grammar.

12. a/an的位置：一般说来，放在名词短语的最前端，但是有几种例外：a/an的位置：一般说来，放在名词短语的最前端，但是有几种例外： • 1) 当名次有so, as, too, how这样的词时，a/an就改变位置。 • So, as how, too + adj. + a/an + n. (强制性语序) • e.g. so beautiful a child; *so nice weather; • She is too kind a girl to refuse you. • We now can see how serious a problem it is! • 2) 当名次中含有such what 时，a/an 要放在such/what之后(强制性的) • e.g. I’ve never met such a delightful person. • What a heart you have!

13. 3)当与quite, rather连用时，quite/rather a/an + adj. + n. 或者a quite/rather + adj. + n. • e.g. He’s quite a good amateur actor. • rather a sad story • Caddie was really rather a silly creature. • so vs. such • It’s such nice weather that I’d like to take a walk.

14. So 是副词，在副词和形容词之前作状语；而such是形容词，修饰名词，作定语。然而，当名词为不可数名词或复数名词时，不能用So；也就是说，So一般用于so…a/an结构中，但是，能用so much work。 • 当名词前有表示数量的词语(many, much, few, little)时，只能用so来修饰它们，而不能用such。 • e.g. I have so few books. • He has so little information.

15. the + 数词 • Five of us visited the school. 我们当中有五个人参观了那所学校。（我们的总数超过5个。） • The five of us visited the school. 我们五个人参观了那所学校。（总数恰好为5个。） • 当用and连接两个人或两件事时，如果他们/它们看作是一起活动时，第二个名词前的定冠词the可以省略；但是，当用both…and来连接两个名词时，则必须重复第二个the。 • e.g. The boys and girls are educated together. • Both the boys and the girls did well in their examinations.

16. 当用表示选择关系的or来连接名词时，or后面的名词不能与or前面的名词共用一个定冠词，而必须重复the。当用表示选择关系的or来连接名词时，or后面的名词不能与or前面的名词共用一个定冠词，而必须重复the。 • e.g. Do you want to buy seats in the orchestra or the balcony?

17. 1. the + n. (singular) • 2. a/an + n. (singular) • 3. the + n. (plural) • 4. zero article + n. (plural) • 5. zero article + [U] n. • 模式1是正式用法的代表，泛指一类人、动物、身体器官、植物及可数的无生命东西(代表人类的发明并能够追其根源: the can opener, the computer)。

18. 而逐渐发展出现而非发明产生的可数的无生命的东西: the book, the window, the chair, the bottle选择 • 模式2与4 。 e.g. *The book / A book fills / Books fill leisure time for many people.

19. 模式1用在关于植物、动物、乐器及复杂发明设备的说明文或科技文章中，像这样的词class，symbol，representation，stereotype/prototype常用此模式。模式1用在关于植物、动物、乐器及复杂发明设备的说明文或科技文章中，像这样的词class，symbol，representation，stereotype/prototype常用此模式。 • 模式3 the + n. (plural)的用法最受限制。通常泛指以宗教、政治、国家、语言、社会、习俗及职业 • 为基础的人类群体。因而下面的泛指陈述是不规范的（但表具体所指时都可以） • *The tigers are ferocious beasts. • The roses need water. • The pianos are splendid instruments. • 不过，这些例句如用其他修饰可数名词的三种模式表泛指都是可以接受的。

20. 模式3取代模式1常用于社会科学的正式文章中，而且既可以表泛指也可表专指。模式3取代模式1常用于社会科学的正式文章中，而且既可以表泛指也可表专指。 • 模式4 zero article + n. (plural)没有模式1正式，因而在交际中用得更多。事实上，4可以取代所有场合中的1。另外，还可以在简单无生命的物体前表泛指。 e.g. Books fill leisure time for many people. 模式4比模式1更具体、更常见，这是因为它是通过复数而不是抽象分类来概括类指的。另外，可以用于从半正式到非正式的所有文体中。

21. 模式2 a/an + n. (singular)是泛指形式最具体、最口语化的一种形式，最适用于具体语境中。 • (Mrs. X to Mrs. Y) I don’t know about you, but I think a husband should help out with the housework. • 这一模式可用于所有语境下的非正式类指，但要排除表集体性的语境。换言之，“husbands”或 “the husband”都可以用a husband替换，变化的不是意义而是语域。

22. 冠词所反映的，并非事物或现象之间的关系，而是交际双方对事物或现象之间的关系，即谈话者认为名词或名词短语所表达的事物或现象对于听者来说是已知的（有定的），还是未知的（无定的）。前一种用法，叫定指(definite reference)，后一种用法叫作非定指(indefinite reference)。换言之，用定冠词或不定冠词并非以说话者为出发点的，而是以听者为出发点的。

23. 假如说话人认为听者能够与他共同确认某个事物或现象的具体所指，他就用定冠词，而不管该名此有无限制性定语。假如说话人认为听者能够与他共同确认某个事物或现象的具体所指，他就用定冠词，而不管该名此有无限制性定语。 • e.g. The house in the corner is for sale. • 假如说话人认为听者尚不知道他所提到的事物或现象的具体所指或者认为听者对他所提到的事物尚不熟悉，他就用不定冠词。 • e.g. A house on the corner is for sale. • I want to marry an American girl. (说话人在心目中可能已有一个具体的美国姑娘，而听者却不知道指谁。)

24. 7.2 Articles in use with different classes of noun • 1)The use of indefinite article • a) To denote the sense “per” • --- We have English lesson four times a week. • b) To concretize an abstract noun • --- He was always ready to do others a kindness. • c) To make a material noun turn into a count noun • --- This is a good tea produced in China. (a kind of )

25. d) In set expressions • --- in a hurry, at a loss, have a cold, a good many • 2) The use of definite article • a) To denote unique objects such as the names of heavenly bodies, four cardinal points and the left and the right,etc. • --- The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. • --- The wind has changed to the south. • --- Turn to the left and you will find the post office.

26. b) Before singular count nouns, denoting attributes, functions or abstracting an individual noun • --- There is still much of the schoolboy in him. • --- He is too fond of the bottle. • c) Used before the plural proper nouns denoting a family, a nation, and some name of places • --- the Wilsons, the Japanese, the Midlands • d) Used with the names of rivers, seas, oceans, bays, straits, gulfs, channels, canals, mountains, islands and deserts • --- the Yellow sea, the Gulf of Mexico

27. --- the Jinggang Mountains, the Gobi Desert • e) Before the proper nouns formed by the common nouns or the adjectives • --- Some names of countries: the United Kingdom, the United States of America • --- Some organizations and institutions: the National People’s Congress, the State Department • --- Some buildings, hotels, shops, schools, hospitals, etc. : the Palace Museum, the Royal Opera House, the Beijing Zoo

28. f) Used with the names of some newspapers, meetings, agreements • --- the People’s daily • --- the Treaty of Versailles (凡尔赛条约) • 3) The use of zero article • The zero article means that no article is used and no other determiners can be used instead. The zero article often occurs before plural count nouns, abstract nouns and material nouns when we mean to talk about things in general sense

29. a) Before singular count nouns denoting the members of a family or nurse, cook, teacher, and denoting the name ofmeals in general sense • --- Mother says I should work hard at college. • --- Teacher was pleased with our work • --- She arrived before / at / after supper. • --- The lunch was well cooked. (in specific sense)

30. b) Before the name of months, days, and most festivals and seasons • --- It happened about the beginning of May. • --- The steamboat sails on Saturdays and Sundays. • --- We are going there on National Day, May Day and New Year’s Day. • --- I last saw her in spring.( in the spring) • c) Before “proper noun + common noun” denoting buildings, streets, bridges, etc. • --- Westminster Abbey, • --- Douning Street, • --- Hyde Park