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Explore the history, composition, and biological roles of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA. Learn about the significance of nucleotides, bases, and the synthesis of DNA and RNA. Discover the role of nucleic acids as raw materials for biological processes and their involvement in genetic engineering.
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Chapter 2 Chemistry of nucleic acid 核酸化学 核酸化学
Section 1 Importance of nucleic acids
1.1 The brief history of nucleic acids research 1869, Miescher, separated nuclein 核素 1889, Altman, prepared nucleic acid 核酸 Kossel & Levene, divided nucleic acid into two groups: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) 1944, Avery terrified DNA is genetic matters 1947,Erwin Chargaff, Chargaff rule 1952 , Rosalind Franklin & Wilkins ,X-ray crystallography of DNA 核素 核酸
1953, Watson & Crick, worked out NDA double helix structure. 1956 , Konberg, DNApolymerases 1958 , Crick , Central dogma 1961 ,Jacob , ,Monod operon 1966 ,Nirenberg ,Genetic code 1970 ,Nathans , Restriction enzymes 1981 , Cech, Ribozyme 1990, HGP
James D. Watson DNA semiconservative replication 1958, Meselson/Stahl
1960 1960年 发现了逆转录酶; 发现了逆转录酶; 发现了基因工程的工具酶; 发现了基因工程的工具酶; 1972 1972年实现了 年实现了DNA 1973 1973年以后 年以后 明确了基因的概念; 明确了基因的概念; 基因工程的兴起; 基因工程的兴起; 一级结构顺序测定的发展; 一级结构顺序测定的发展; 高级结构的测定; 高级结构的测定; 核酸的人工合成 核酸的人工合成. . 年— —1973 1973年 年 DNA的体外重组; 的体外重组;
80年代以后分子生物学 年代以后分子生物学、 、分子遗传学 分子遗传学 等学科突飞猛进发展 等学科突飞猛进发展, (HGP) ,实施人类基因 实施人类基因 组计划 组计划( ), ,进入基因组时代 进入基因组时代. . 遗传生物学家 遗传生物学家Craig Venter博 士 士, , 创立了一个名为“ 创立了一个名为“Celera Genomics” ”的风险投资公司, 的风险投资公司, 采用了如“散弹枪”等一系列新 采用了如“散弹枪”等一系列新 的方法,完成了 的方法,完成了99%的人类基因 组草图 组草图 博 的人类基因
1.2 The biological roles of nucleic acids
Pyrimidine ring and purine ring 嘧啶环与嘌呤环 嘧啶环与嘌呤环
Section2 Composition of nucleic acids Nucleotides( Nucleic acids(核酸 (核苷酸 核苷酸) ) 核酸) ) Nucleosides ( phosphate( (磷酸 磷酸) (核苷 核苷) ) ribose( ribose 核糖 deoxyribose D-2-脱氧核糖 脱氧核糖 (核糖 核糖) 核糖 ) Bases ( purines 嘌呤 pyrimidines 嘧啶 (碱基 碱基) 嘌呤 ) 嘧啶
2.1 Ribose (in RNA) and deoxyribose (in DNA) 核糖与脱氧核糖 核糖与脱氧核糖
2.2 Bases 碱基 碱基 Purines and Pyrimidines Purines ( (嘌呤 嘌呤) adenine (腺嘌呤 腺嘌呤), guanine ( Pyrimidines ( (嘧啶 cytosine ( (胞嘧啶 胞嘧啶) ): (鸟嘌呤 鸟嘌呤) ) ): ), thymine ( 嘧啶) (胸腺嘧啶 胸腺嘧啶) )
Adenine and guanine (腺嘌呤与鸟嘌呤 腺嘌呤与鸟嘌呤)
Cytosine 胞嘧啶 胞嘧啶 Uracil 尿嘧啶 尿嘧啶 Thymine 胸腺嘧啶 胸腺嘧啶
2.3 Ribonucleosides 核苷 Ribonucleoside = ribose/deoxyribose + bases 核苷 每一种核苷中,糖都是通过糖的异头 每一种核苷中,糖都是通过糖的异头 碳和嘧啶的N-1或嘌呤的 或嘌呤的N-9之间形成的 N-糖苷键与碱基连接的。核糖中的碳原子 糖苷键与碱基连接的。核糖中的碳原子 的编号都带有“ 的编号都带有“ ˊ”以区别于碱基中的原 ”以区别于碱基中的原 子编号 子编号。 。 之间形成的 - 碳和嘧啶的
肌苷 肌苷
2.4 Nucleitides 核苷酸 Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate 核苷酸 核苷酸是核苷的磷酸酯。核苷含有 核苷酸是核苷的磷酸酯。核苷含有3 3个可以 个可以 被磷酸酯化的羟基( 被磷酸酯化的羟基(2ˊ、 、3ˊ和 和5ˊ),而脱 ),而脱 和5ˊ)。磷 氧核苷含有 氧核苷含有2 2个这样的羟基( 个这样的羟基(3ˊ和 酰基通常都是连接在5ˊ- -羟基的氧原子上, )。磷 酰基通常都是连接在 羟基的氧原子上, 因此不作特别指定时,提到一个核苷酸指 因此不作特别指定时,提到一个核苷酸指 的都是 的都是5ˊ- -磷酸酯。 磷酸酯。
Cycling nucleotides—cAMP, cGMP –secondary messengers in hormones action 某些激素作用的第二信使 某些激素作用的第二信使
2.5 Nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates
2.6 Some important nucleotides dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP—raw materials for DNA biosynthesis DNA合成原材料 ATP, GTP, CTP, UTP (1) raw materials for RNA biosynthesis RNA合成原材料 合成原材料 (2) energy donor 能量供应者 能量供应者 (3) Important co-enzymes 重要辅酶 (UDPG/FAD/NAD/CoA) Cycling nucleotides—cAMP, cGMP 合成原材料 重要辅酶
GTP: 参与蛋白质与腺嘌呤的生物合成 参与蛋白质与腺嘌呤的生物合成 UDP: 参与糖的互变 参与糖的互变 CTP: 参与磷脂的生物合成 参与磷脂的生物合成
2.7 Polynucleic acid chain 多核苷酸链 Polynucleic acid chain = connected nucleotides binding by 3’5’phosphodiester bonds ( (3’5’磷酸二酯键 磷酸二酯键) ) 多核苷酸链
Notation of base sequence Single capital letters: AGCUGGCAAUG A lowercase “p” is written between each successive连续的 连续的 base: GpApCpUpUpGpCp Or: GACUUGCp or pGACUUGC
Shorthand notation for nucleic acid structures 简略的表达方式 呋喃糖 Furanoses are represented by lines; Phosphodiesters are represented by diagonal slashes 对角斜线
Section 3 Structures and function of DNA
3.1 Primary structure Primary structure refers to the base sequence in polydeoxynucleotide chain, which carries the genetic information. The smallest DNA in nature is virus DNA. The length of φX174 virus DNA is 5, 386 bases (a single chain). The DNA length of human genome is 3,000,000,000 pair bases.
3.1.1 3’, 5’phosphodiester bonds In DNA the nucleotides are covalently共价 joined together by 3’, 5’phosphodiester bonds to form a repetitive sugar- phosphate chain which is the backbone to which the bases are attached. 共价
3.1.2 Restriction endonuclease (限制性内切酶) (限制性内切酶)
繁殖 繁殖 DNA recombinant technology
Snake venom phosphodiesterase ( (蛇毒磷酸二酯酶 蛇毒磷酸二酯酶) ) Sequential removal of 5’-NMP from 3’-end Spleen phosphodiesterase ( (牛脾磷酸二酯酶 牛脾磷酸二酯酶) ) Sequential removal of 3’-NMP from 5’-end Exonuclease ( (核酸外切酶 核酸外切酶) )
3.1.3 Sanger DNA sequencing protocol Although there are only four bases in DNA molecule, the base sequence in DNA chain is not easy to test before 1978 when Sanger invented dideoxy method ( and Gilbert invented chemical cleavage method(化学断裂法) (化学断裂法). . (双脱氧法) 双脱氧法)
To separate single strand DNA; To use the single strand DNA as a model to synthesize a new complementary strand (互补链 互补链); ; The raw materials dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP are label by isotope(同位素标记 同位素标记) 32P, additional ddNTPs are added to the system; ; A DNA primer (引物 合酶) is added to the system; 引物) and a DNA polymerase (聚 ; 聚 合酶 Electrophoresis is used to identify the bands.
Normal bases versus chain-terminating bases Dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs)
Dideoxynucleotides DNA sequencing reactions Replicating a DNA strand in the presence of dideoxy-T
Gel electrophoresis separate the fragments by size and measure them Putting all four deoxynucleotides into the picture A scan of one gel lane An Automated sequencing gel
RNA sequencing RNA →cDNA →DNA sequencing Protein sequencing mRNA → cDNA → DNA sequencing →protein sequence
Shotgun sequencing鸟枪法测序 assembly of random sequence fragments 鸟枪法测序:
3.2 Secondary structure DNA is composed of two strand wound round each other in opposite direction to form a double helix, with the bases on the inside and the sugar- phosphate backbones on the outside. The two DNA chains are held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases; adenine(A) always pairs with thymine(T) and guanine(G) always pairs with cytosine( (C) ). DNA 是由两条方向相反的多脱氧核苷酸链组成的双螺旋,碱 是由两条方向相反的多脱氧核苷酸链组成的双螺旋,碱 基位于螺旋内侧,糖 基位于螺旋内侧,糖- -磷酸骨架位于螺旋外侧 磷酸骨架位于螺旋外侧. .两条链由碱基对之 碱基配对规律为A对 两条链由碱基对之 ,C对 对T, 对G. 间形成的氢键相连 间形成的氢键相连. .碱基配对规律为