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Chapter 16. Liquids and Solids. 16.1 Intermolecular Forces 16.2 The Liquid State 16.3 An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids 16.4 Structure and Bonding in Metals 16.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids 16.6 Molecular Solids 16.7 Ionic Solids
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Chapter 16 Liquids and Solids
16.1 Intermolecular Forces 16.2 The Liquid State 16.3 An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids 16.4 Structure and Bonding in Metals 16.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids 16.6 Molecular Solids 16.7 Ionic Solids 16.8 Structures of Actual Ionic Solids 16.9 Lattice Defects 16.10 Vapor Pressure and Changes of State 16.11 Phase Diagrams Chapter 16: Liquids and Solids
Figure 16.1: Schematic representation of the three states of matter
Figure 16.2: (a) The electrostatic interaction of two polar molecules. (b) The interaction of many dipoles in a condensed state.
Figure 16.4: The boiling points of the covalent hydrides of elements in Groups 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A.
Figure 16.5: An instantaneous polarization can occur on atom a, creating instantaneous dipole.
Relative Strength of Intermolecular Forces Ion - Ion Forces Strongest Attractive Forces Ion - Dipole Forces Dipole - Dipole Forces Ion - Induced Dipole Forces Dipole - Induced Dipole Forces London - Dispersive Forces Weakest Attractive Forces
Figure 16.6: A molecule in the interior of a liquid is attracted to the molecules surrounding it, whereas a molecule at the surface of liquid is attracted only by molecules below it and on each side of it.
Figure 16.7: Nonpolar liquid mercury forms a convex meniscus in a glass tube.
Figure 16.8: Several crystalline solids Fluorite Rhodochrosite Pyrite Amethyst
Figure 16.9: Three cubic unit cells and the corresponding lattices. Simple Cubic Body-centered Cubic Face-centered Cubic
Figure 16.10: X-rays scattered from two different atoms may reinforce (constructive interference) or cancel (destructive interference) one another.
Figure 16.11: Reflection of X rays of wavelength Bragg equation : nl = 2d sinJ
A conch shell on a beach. Source: Corbis
Figure 16.12: Examples of three types of crystalline solids. Elemental Ionic Molecular Solid Solid Solid
The Hexagonal Structure of Ice Ice Structure with open holes giving Ice a density less than water it’s self. The delicate 6 point snow flake reflects the hexagonal structure.
Figure 16.13: The closet packing arrangement of uniform spheres.
Figure 16.14: When spheres are closest packed so that the spheres in the third layer are directly over those in the first layer (aba), the unit cell is the hexagonal prism illustrated here in red.
Figure 16.15: When spheres are packed in the abc arrangement, the unit cell is face-centered cubic.
A section of a surface containing copper atoms (red) and an indium atom (yellow).
Figure 16.17: The net number of spheres in a face-centered cubic unit cell.
Figure 16.16: The indicated sphere has 12 equivalent nearest neighbors.
Example 16.1 (P 780) Silver crystallizes in a cubic close packed structure. The radius of a sliver atom is 1.44A (14 pm). Calculate the density of Ag. Density = mass per unit volume. Use the Pythagorean theorem to calculate the edge of the cube “d” and then the cubic volume. d2 + d2 = (4r)2 d = 8r2 = r 8 since r = 1.44 A d = 1.44 A ( 8 ) = 4.07 A Volume of the unit cell = d3 = (4.07 A) = 67.4 A3 67.4 A3 x ( )3 = 6.74 x 10-23 cm3 In the face-centered cubic there are 4 atoms per cell: Density = Density = _________ g/cm3 1.00 x 10-8 cm A (4 atoms)(1.07.9 g/mol)(6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol) 6.74 x 10-23 cm3
Figure 16.18: In the body-centered cubic unit cell the spheres touch along the body diagonal.
Figure 16.19: The body-centered cubic unit cell with the center sphere deleted.
Figure 16.20: On the face of the body-centered cubic unit cell.
Figure 16.21: The relationship of the body diagonal (b) to the face diagonal (f) and the edge (e) for the body-centered cubic unit cell.
Figure 16.22: The electron sea model for metals postulates a regular array of cations in a "sea" of valence electrons.
Figure 16.23: The molecular orbital energy levels produced when various numbers of atomic orbitals interact.
Figure 16.24: A representation of the energy levels (bands) in a magnesium crystal
Grains of nanophase palladium magnified 200,000 times by an electron microscope. Source: Nanophase Technologies Corporation
Metal Alloys Alloy: a substance that contains mixture of elements and has metallic properties Substitutional alloy: some host metal atoms are replaced by other atoms of similar size Brass: ~66% copper, ~33% zinc (fig 16.25a) Sterling silver: 93% silver, 7% copper Pewter: 85% tin, 7% copper, 6% bismuth, and 2% antimony Plumbers solder: 67% lead, 33% tin Interstitial alloy: some of the interstices (holes) are filled by smaller atoms Mild steels: >0.2% carbon; Medium steels: 0.2-0.6% carbon, High carbon steels: 0.6-1.5% carbon (fig 16.25b)
