Chapter 3

1. Chapter 3 • The Legal Regulation of Unions and Collective Bargaining

2. The Conspiracy Doctrine • From 1800 to 1890 state courts relied on British common law to regulate the conduct of unions and employers • Cordwainers’ case: First landmark case in 1806 • Court ruled efforts to raise wages were a criminal conspiracy • Commonwealth v. Hunt: In 1842, court ruled unions could exist, but were prohibited from using coercive practices

3. The Sherman Antitrust Act • Courts applied Sherman to unions, treating them as a “commodity” • Unions were treated like other monopolies or conspiracies that restricted trade • Courts used injunctions to discourage strikes • Employers could gain injunctions quickly

4. The Clayton Act • Unions lobbied hard to end injunctions • In 1914, Congress passed the Clayton Act • The act was supposed to end the use of injunctions, but courts interpreted it narrowly and state courts continued to use injunctions

5. Legislation Granting Rights to Collective Bargaining • Legal and public policy opposition to the formation of unions began to erode in the early 20th century • Lloyd-LaFollette Act of 1912 gave postal employees the right to organize • War Labor Board supported rights for the private sector to organize • The start of pragmatic adjustments in response to union power and labor turmoil

6. The Railway Labor Act • Passed by Congress in 1926 • Specifies that the employees have the right to organize unions without employer interference and to bargain through the representatives of their own choosing • The purpose of the law was to establish procedures to reduce conflict in the railroads • Airlines were added in 1936

7. A Test of Constitutionality • The constitutionality of the RLA was in question until a Supreme Court Ruling • In 1930, Court heard Texas and New Orleans Railroad Company v. Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks • Court ruled that bargaining was in the “highest public interest” and would prevent the interruption of commerce • First time Supreme Court recognized the authority of the U.S. to protect union activities

8. The Norris LaGuardia Act • Passed in 1932, the Act provided an even stronger endorsement of collective bargaining than the RLA • It allows private sector employees full freedom of association, self-organization, and representatives to negotiate contractual terms • Also known as the “Federal Anti-Injunction Act” as it imposed restraints (but state courts continued to issue injunctions)

9. National Industrial Recovery Act • NIRA passed in 1933 to promote recovery from the Depression • Allowed business groups to plan & regulate prices; workers in the plan had minimum wages • Meant to stimulate business activity • Struck down by Supreme Court; Congress had exceeded its authority • From 1933-1935, union members grew from 2.9 to 3.9 million

10. National Labor Relations Act • Passed in 1935, the NLRA made union activity and strikes legal in the private sector • Purpose was to promote orderly and peaceful recognition of unions and collective bargaining as a means of establishing terms of employment • Later amended by Taft-Hartley (1947) and Landrum-Griffin (1959)

11. National Emergency Disputes • Title II of the NLRA includes procedures when a strike has caused a national emergency dispute • The NLRA created the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (FMCS) to mediate disputes and assist in the free flow of commerce • President can ask for a court injunction to require both sides to work under the expired contract while holding negotiations • If that fails, Congress can end the dispute

12. Administration of the NLRA • A five-member board with a general counsel, 50 regional boards and staff administers the NLRA • Key function of the NLRB is to supervise and conduct representation elections and to adjudicate charges of unfair labor practices • The NLRB can award back pay but cannot assess punitive damages • Court must enforce orders and the aggrieved can appeal to court

13. The Taft-Hartley Act • After WWII, labor unions had grown in strength and a strike wave stimulated hostility toward unions • Congress passed the Taft-Hartley in 1947 to balance the power and grant more individual rights in dealing with unions • Union unfair practices were added to Section 8 • Excludes supervisors in the private sector from coverage under the NLRA • Mandates labor reports to DOL, frequency of union elections, and allows DOL trusteeship

14. The Landrum-Griffin Act • Known also as the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 • Major purpose was to protect union members from improper union conduct • Eliminated arrangements between unions and employers that deprive members of proper union representation • Includes “bill of rights” section for members

15. The Value of Collective Bargaining • The Contribution to Political Democracy • Right to form unions and carry out strikes is an essential component of political democracy • The Need for the Right to Strike • Since the freedom to enter a contract also requires the freedom to reject a contract offer, the right to negotiate and strike are closely related

16. Public Sector Law • Collective bargaining rights were granted to federal employees through Executive Order 10988 in 1962 • The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 established the FLRA for the federal sector • Since the passage of the NLRA, 41 states have passed collective bargaining legislation for state and local employees

17. Employment at Will • Doctrine that stipulates that the employee and employer are free to end the employment relationship at any time, for any reason, and without liability, provided the termination does not violate any statutory or constitutional provisions • Thus, non-union employees may have no recourse if discharged

18. The Scope of the Doctrine • State courts have decided for the employment-at-will doctrine: • When there is no written contract, no specified term of employment, and no employee handbook • When an employee handbook is insufficient to establish exceptions to the “at will” doctrine • An expired union contract leads to employment at will • Otherwise, the contract would discourage good faith bargaining and be “inimical” to the collective bargaining process

19. Exceptions Imposed by State Courts • State courts have awarded back pay and reinstatement to discharged employees when: • The employer’s written policies constitute an implied contract and employment security • This limits employer discharge to “just cause” • Promises of employment security in a oral or written agreement, or through actions that lead employees to expect employment security • Firing an employee for refusing to violate statutory policy

20. Employment Law • Society has regulated certain employment conditions more directly than it does collective bargaining • In the U.S., such regulations include overtime, minimum wages, unemployment insurance, pensions, and other issues • The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 includes many of the key regulations

21. Seniority and Equal Employment Opportunity Policy Goals • Seniority provisions regulate which worker will be laid off and who is eligible for promotion • In the past, some seniority systems were used to discriminate against minorities and women by creating segregated seniority units or progression ladders • Key Court Decisions on Seniority Systems • Supreme Court ruled in 1977 that departmental seniority units are legal as long as there is no intent to discriminate

22. Key Court Decisions on Seniority Systems • Supreme Court ruled in 1977 that departmental seniority units are legal as long as there is no intent to discriminate • Consent decrees are separate from judicial rulings • Federal agencies negotiate settlements, such as in the steel industry • Cannot be binding on persons who are not parties to the proceedings • Seniority systems cannot be altered by a court to benefit workers not victims of discrimination

23. Key Court Decisions on Affirmative Action • The term “affirmative action” was first introduced by JFK in 1961 by Executive Order 10925 • Title VII does not require affirmative action, but does require nondiscrimination in hiring, pay, and promotion • In the 1960s and 1970s, the Supreme Court expanded legal avenues for women and minorities battling discrimination • A more conservative shift began in the late 1970s

24. A Timeline Placed on Civil Rights • Workers cannot be compensated for discrimination that occurred prior to the Civil Rights Act • An individual has 2 years to file a charge • In 1989, the Supreme Court ruled that affirmative action settlements can be reopened when a white male alleges reverse discrimination

25. Important Administrative Agencies • National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) • Administers the NLRA, including Taft-Hartley and Landrum-Griffin amendments • Key activities include designating bargaining units, conducting representation elections, and investigating and adjudicating unfair labor practice charges • U.S. Department of Labor • Conducts research and collects data • Also oversees equal opportunity employment, health and safety, and internal union affairs

26. Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (FMCS) • Offers mediation service to labor and management in collective bargaining • National Mediation Board • Administers the Railway Labor Act, union representation, and mediation services • State and Local Agencies • A variety of agencies that regulate the conduct of public sector bargaining, provide mediation, and administer regulations

27. Summary • Labor laws influence the conduct of collective bargaining • The NLRA is the key labor law that governs collective bargaining • Passed in 1935, it gives unions the right to strike, exclusive jurisdiction, defines unfair labor practices, and regulates bargaining • Before the NLRA, courts had applied the conspiracy doctrines and injunctions