Ethics

1. Ethics Chapter 2 Relativism

2. Cultural Moral Relativism Here are 5 claims Cultural Moral Relativism accepts: 1. Different societies have different moral codes. 2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong for that society. 3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society’s standards to be better than another. 4. The moral code of our society has no special status. 5. It is arrogant for us to judge other culture’s behavior. We should always be tolerant of them.

3. The fifth claim: Tolerance • The fifth claim contradicts cultural relativism because it prescribes tolerance as an objective claim. • However, what if the moral code of a society prescribes intolerance, then, according to cultural relativism, this society should be both tolerant and intolerant and this is contradictory

4. The Cultural Difference Argument (1) Different cultures have different moral codes. (2) Therefore, there is no objective truth in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinions , and opinions vary from culture to culture.

5. Cultural Difference Argument • The CDA is invalid, which means that, even if the premises are true, the conclusion does not follow necessarily. • It is, therefore, an unsound argument. • This does not mean that the conclusion is false, and it does not mean that it cannot be a cogent argument!

6. Cultural Difference Argument • Rachel’s critique of the Cultural Difference Argument as invalid does not mean that the argument is bad. • Remember that an invalid strong (probable) argument can be cogent. • Therefore, the cultural difference argument might still be a strong argument and thus might still provide good reason for us to accept cultural moral relativism.

7. What follows from Cultural relativism (reductioargument against Relativism) If cultural moral relativism were true then: 1) No culture could have morally inferior customs; however, there certainly are practices around the world that are horrific and morally inferior (e.g., political oppression) and that should be condemned. 2) We could never formulate a legitimate critique of unjust practices or customs of our own culture. 3) There could never be moral progress.

8. 1) All Customs of all cultures are morally Equal • This first consequence seems absurd. • There certainly are practices around the world that are horrific (e.g., political oppression and female circumcision). • We should not be tolerant of repressive and torturous practices, even if they are customs of a foreign cultures. • At the same time, we can learn about morally superior customs from other cultures.

9. 2) Cannot Critique our own customs • The second consequence of cultural relativism is that our own society can have no immoral practices. • Cultural relativism states that what is ethically right is what a culture accepts as custom, therefore, we can never critique any custom as morally corrupt. • But this is absurd, because it would imply that our customs are morally perfect.

10. 3) There can be no moral progress • The third consequences is also absurd. • If Cultural Relativism is correct, then the concept of social reform is impossible. • Moreover, social reformers, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Muhammad Gandhi, and Jesus would have to be viewed as corrupt individuals who were morally evil. This is absurd!

11. Why Cultural Differences • Customs are a result of many factors other than moral values. • Customs arise from a belief system about how the world works (physical facts), about religious beliefs (God, soul, after-life), and as a result of a culture's environment (climate, terrain, medicine, resources, etc.). • Two cultures’ customs may be very different because of factors other than different value systems.

12. Example • The Greeks and Callatians both cared, respected and valued their ancestors; however, because their views about the dead and their different religious beliefs, they had different methods of showing their respect. • The Eskimos’ treatment of female infants can be understood better, once we understand the harsh physical environments they lived in, and that they were nomadic people who had to move long distances. Moreover, Eskimos mothers nurtured and fed their children until they were four, making it very difficult to have several children simultaneously. There was no birth control and taking the life of an infant was a last resort for the sake of survival.

13. General Universal Rules • There does seem to be some general universal rules that are essential for society. • If this is true then it would negate the first premise of the cultural difference argument (“Different cultures have different moral codes.”) • Examples of universal values: 1) Some degree of truth telling (honesty) 2) Prohibition against murder.

14. Are there culture-independent Moral standards • Example: female circumcision is wrong. • Should we interfere in cases where customs dictate that certain unjust, harmful practices be performed? • Why are people reluctant to do so?

15. Confusion • Moral judgments vs. action and interference • The virtue of tolerance does not mean that we ought to tolerate everything. • The virtue of respect means we ought to respect a person and their rights but not necessarily their actions and beliefs. • Condemning a specific practice does not mean that one condemns the entire society.

16. 1.Different societies have different moral codes • Yes, but they also have shared values. • The reasons why they have different moral codes might have to do with factors other than morality, such as religious beliefs, fcatual beliefs, etc.

17. 2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong for that society. • This means that societies are morally infallible (but this is seems intuitively wrong). • It also means that if you believe something to be true then it is true (but this seems intuitively wrong). • It also means that there can never be moral improvement or progress(but this seems intuitively wrong). . • It also means we would have to accept horrific practices, such as slavery or racial discrimination, just because some people believe that it is morally permissible (but this seems intuitively wrong).

18. 3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge a moral principle of one society’ to be better than another. • Just because there is no universal Truth that holds for all time and in all cases, does not mean that we cannot talk about one practice being morally superior than another. • There is a difference between Absolute principles and objectivity in comparing moral principles.

19. 4. The moral code of our society has no special status. • This is true BUT we do not have to be cultural relativist to hold this view. • In fact, our society and culture might be morally inferior to many others and we can learn a great deal from other societies.

20. 5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them. • Moral judgment does not need to be made arrogantly. • Nor does it need to imply judgments about a culture’s overall superiority or inferiority. • Moral judgments can be limited to specific practices. • To judge a specific practice as morally wrong in a given culture, is perfectly consistent with showing respect for that culture and its other customs.

21. Lessons of Cultural relativism • First, many of our practices are socially conditioned and conventional and so Cultural Relativism does have a strong insight and foundation. • Second, because we are strongly conditioned through social norms and conventions, we can easily confuse the line between ethical principles and non-ethical principles. This can lead to cultural arrogance and superiority about non-moral customs. • Cultural Relativism, therefore, prevents dogmatism and can makes us more open minded.