Algorithms ( and Datastructures )

1. Algorithms (andDatastructures) Lecture 9 MAS 714 part 2 Hartmut Klauck

2. Connectivity by Matrix Multiplication • Problem: wecandecideconnectivityfor all pairs, but have not solvedAPD orAPSP!

3. APD for undirected unweighted graphs • G is undirected and unweighted, adjacency matrix A • We have an algorithm for integer matrix multiplication • A2[u,v] • The number of paths of length 2 from u to v • New matrix A‘: • A‘[u,v]=1 iff uv and A[u,v]=1 or A2[u,v]> 0 • otherwise A‘[u,v]=0 • A‘[u,v]=1, if path from u to v has length ·2 • one matrix multiplication • G‘ has matrix A‘

4. An observation • Lemma 1: • (u,v) distance in G, ‘(u,v) in G‘ • If(u,v) even, then(u,v)=2‘(u,v) • If (u,v) odd, then(u,v)=2‘(u,v)-1 • Idea: once we know distances for G‘ AND the parity of the shortest path length in G, we can compute the distances in G

5. The parities • Lemma 2: • Vertices u,v • For every neighbor w of u:(u,v)-1· (w,v) · (u,v)+1 • There is a neighbor w of u:(w,v)=(u,v)-1

6. The parities • Lemma 3: • (u,v) even, then ‘(w,v)¸‘(u,v) for all neighbors w of u • (u,v) odd, then ‘(w,v)·‘(u,v) for every neighbor w of u, and there is w with ‘(w,v)<‘(u,v) • Proof: • (u,v)=2k. (w,v)¸2k-1 and ‘(u,v)=k. Then‘(w,v)¸(w,v)/2¸k-1/2, hence±‘(w,v)¸k=‘(u,v) (distances are integers) • Analogous for odd (u,v)

7. The parities • Lemma 4: • (u) neighbors of u, and d(u) degree • (u,v) is even iffw2(u)‘(w,v)¸‘(u,v)d(u) • (u,v) is odd iffw2(u)‘(w,v)<‘(u,v)d(u)

8. APD algorithm • Graph G, matrix A • Output: distance matrix D • Let A‘[u,v]=1 iff uv and A[u,v]+A2[u,v]>0, otherwise 0 • If A‘[u,v]=1 for all uv then D=2A‘-A (basecase) • Compute D‘ for A‘ recursively • S=AD‘ • Compute D: • D[u,v]= • 2D‘[u,v], ifS[u,v] ¸D‘[u,v] A2[u,u] • 2D‘[u,v]-1, if S[u,v] < D‘[u,v] A2[u,u]

9. Running Time • Running time is O(T(n) log n), for the matrix multiplication running time T(n) on n£n matrices • Proof: • diameter(D)=d. Then diameter(G‘) = dd/2e. • Running time L(n,d). • L(n,1) and L(n,2) are O(T(n))+O(n2) • Recursion tree depth is O(log n) • L(n,d)· 2T(n)+L(n,d d/2e)+O(n2) • Remark: matrix entries of size O(n2)

10. Correctness • Induction over the diameter • Case 1: diameter(G)·2 • D=2A‘-A is correct • Case 2: diameter(G)¸3 , i.e., diameter( A‘)< diameter(A) • (u,v) even: (u,v) =2‘(u,v) =2D‘[u,v] • (u,v) odd:(u,v) =2‘(u,v)-1=2D‘[u,v]-1 • We have to show • (u,v) even iff S[u,v] ¸ D‘[u,v] A2[u,u] • (u,v) oddiff S[u,v] < D‘[u,v] A2[u,u] • S[u,v]=w A[u,w]D‘[w,v]= w2(u)‘(w,v) • By induction all D‘ correct, A2[u,u]=d(u) and Lemma 4 implies correctness

11. Conclusion • We get an O(n log n) algorithm for APD • Using an O(n ) algorithm for integer matrix multiplication

12. Minimum spanning trees • Definition • A spanning tree of an undirected connected graph is a set of edges: • edges form a tree • every vertex is in at least one edge • When the edges of G haveweights, thena minimumspanning tree is a spanning tree withthesmallestsum of edgeweights

13. MST • Motivation: measure costs to establishconnectionsbetweenvertices • Basic procedure in manygraphalgorithms • Problem first studied by Boruvka in 1926 • Other algorithms: Kruskal, Prim • Inputs: adjacency list with weights

14. Applicationexample • Metric TSP (TravelingSalesman Problem) • weights form a metric • Still NP-complete • 2-approximation: • Find an MST • Traverse the MST in an Euler tour • Makeshortcutstogenerate a Hamiltoniancycle • Euler tour costistwicethe MST cost, henceatmosttwicethe TSP cost, shortcutscannotincreasecost

15. MST • Generic algorithm: • Start with an empty set of edges • Add edges, such that current edge set is always subset of a minimumspanning tree • Edges that can be added are called safe

16. Generic Algorithm • Set A=; • As long as A is not (yet) a spanning tree add a safe edge e • Output A

17. Safe Edges • How can we find safe edges? • Definition: • A cut S, V-S is a partition of V • A set of edges repects the cut, if no edge crosses • An edge is light for a cut, if it is the edge with smallest weight that crosses the cut • An edge is light, if it is light for a set of cuts (e.g. all cuts respected by a edgesetA)

18. Safe Edges • Theorem:Let G be an undirected connected weighted graph. A asubset of a minimum spanning tree. C=(S, V-S) a cut that A respects.Then the lightest edge of C is safe. • Proof: • T is an MST containing A • Suppose e is not in T (otherwise we are done) • Construct another MST that contains e

19. Safe Edges • Insertinge={u,v}into T creates a cycle p in T[{e} • u and v areon different sides of the cut • Another edge e‘ in T crosses the cut • e‘ is not in A (A respects the cut) • Remove e‘ from T (T isnowdisconnectedinto 2 trees) • Add e to T (thetwotreesreconnectintoone) • W(e)=W(e‘), so T‘ is also minimal • Hence A[{e} subset of T ‘ • e is safe for A.

20. Which edges are not in a min. ST? • Theorem: • G a graph with weights W.All edge weights distinct.C a cycle in G and e={u,v} the largest edge in C. • Then e is in no minimum spanning tree. • Proof: • Assume e is in a min. ST T • Remove e from T • Result is two trees (containing all vertices) • The vertices of the two trees form a cut • Follow C-{e} from u to v • Some edge e‘ crosses the cut • T-{e}[{e‘} is a spanning tree with smaller weight T

21. Algorithms • We complete the algorithm „skeleton“ in two ways • Prim: A is always a tree • Kruskal: A starts as a forest that joins into a single tree • initially every vertex its own tree • join trees until all are joined up

22. Data structures: Union-Find • We need to store a set ofdisjointsetswith the following operations: • Make-Set(v):generate a set {v}. Name of the set is v • Find-Set(v):Find the name of the set that contains v • Union(u,v):Join the sets named u and v. Name of the new set is either u or v • As with Dijkstra/priority queues the running time will depend on the implementation of the data structure

23. Kruskal • Input: graph G, weights W:ER • A=; • For each vertex v: • Make-Set(v) • Sort edges in E (increasing) by weight • For all edges{u,v}(order increasing by weight): • a=FindSet(u), b=FindSet(v) • Ifabthen A:=A[{{u,v}} Union(a,b) • Output A

24. Implementation Union Find • Universeof n elements • UsearrayM with n entries • Sets are represented as trees, by pointers towards the roots • MakeSet(v) forall v: M(v)=v for all v • Union(u,v): set M(v)=u, if the set of u is larger than the set ofv (important!) • Find(v): follow the pointers fromM(v) until M(u)=u, output u • We need to store for each v that is a root also the size of its set • Beginning with 1, update duringUnion

25. Running times Union Find • MakeSet: O(n) tomake n singleton sets • Union: O(1) • Find: corresponds to maximum depth of trees • Depth is O(log n): • Claim:Trees with size g have depth · log g:Proof: • This is true when trees are generated • Union: Sets u,v join with sizes a,b and depthsq·loga andr·log b, wloga¸b • New tree has size a+b • r < q, then new depthisq · log a · log (a+b) • r = q, thennewdepthisq+1, but a¸ 2q, b¸ 2q, a+b¸2q+2q=2q+1, hencenewdepth·log (a+b) • r > q, thenthenewdepthis r+1. r·log b, b·a, hencer+1· log(2b)· log(a+b)

26. Kruskal • Input: graph G, weights W:ER • A=; • For each vertex v: • Make-Set(v) • Sort edges in E (increasing) by weight • For all edges{u,v}(order increasing by weight): • a=FindSet(u), b=FindSet(v) • Ifabthen A:=A[{{u,v}} Union(a,b) • Output A

27. Running time Kruskal • We have: • until 3: O(n) • 4: O(m log n) • 5: O(m log n) • total O(n+m log n)

28. Correctness • We only have to show that all edges inserted are safe • Choose a cut respected by A, which is crossed by the new edge e • e has minimum weight under all edges forming nocycle, hence e hasminimumweightamong all edgescrossingthecut • Hence e must besafefor A