LEARNING

1. LEARNING

2. Scope of presentation • Definition of learning • Nature and characteristics of learning • Types of learning • Domains of learning • Factor influencing learning • Theory of learning

3. Definition of Learning • Gardner Murphy (1968)- the term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental requirements. • Gates (1946) – learning is the modification of behaviour through experience. • Woodworth (1945) – any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in any respect, good or bad) and makes his later behaviour and experiences different from what they would otherwise have been. • Kingsley and Garry (1957) - learning is the process by which behaviour changed through practice or training.

4. Definition: Learning is… A change in behavior as a result of experience or practice. The acquisition of knowledge. Knowledge gained through study. To gain knowledge of, or skill in, something through study, teaching, instruction or experience. The process of gaining knowledge. A process by which behavior is changed, shaped or controlled. The individual process of constructing understanding based on experience from a wide range of sources.

5. Nature and characteristics of learning • Learning is the change in behaviour. • Learning is a continuous life long process. • Learning is a universal process. • Learning is purposive and goal directed. • Learning involves reconstruction of experiences. • Learning is the product of activity and environment.

6. 8. Learning is transferable from one situation to another. 9. Learning helps in attainment of teaching – learning objectives. 10. Learning helps in the proper growth and development. 11. Learning helps in the balanced development of the personality. 12. Learning helps in proper adjustment. 13. Learning helps in the realization of goals of life. 14. Learning does not necessarily imply improvement.

7. Types of Learning Reference- http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/

8. Types of learning 1. Motor learning: Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination

9. 2. Verbal learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words for communication.

10. 3. Concept learning: It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising, identifying things

11. 4. Discrimination learning: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.

12. 5. Learning of principles: Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.

13. 6. Problem solving: This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.

14. 7. Attitude learning: Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.

15. Domains of Learning • Cognitive domain of learning • Conative domain of learning • Affective domain of learning

16. Factor influencing learning • Learner Related Factor – • Learner’s physical and mental health • The basic potential of the learner • The level of aspiration and achievement motivation • Goal of life • Readiness and will power

17. Teacher Related Factor – • mastery over the subject matter • Art and skill teaching • Personality traits and behaviour of the teacher • Level of adjustment and mental health of the teacher • Type of discipline and interaction maintained by the teacher

18. Contents Related Factor- • Nature of the contents or learning experience • Selection of the content or learning experiences • Organisation of the contents or learning experience

19. Theory of learning

20. Theories of Learning: • Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they learn. They have conducted many experiments on animals and children and come to certain definite conclusions which explain the modes of learning. • These are called as theories of learning. In many books, these explanations are treated as kinds of learning. In a sense it is true. But the term learning is very comprehensive. It covers a wide range of activities which cannot be explained within a limited framework. There are many theories explaining modes of learning. Important among them are:

21. Trial and Error Method of Learning – Thorndike (1874-1949) http://physicsdiary.com/2014/04/26/trial-and-error-method-of-learning-thorndike-1874-1949/

22. Thorndike’s Experiment • He used a 24 hours hungry cat. The cat was fully fed 24 hours back. He used a puzzle box which had a door that could be opened by a device – by pressing a lever, the latch or pulling a string. The box had ventilation. The hungry cat was put inside the box and a fish was placed outside. The cat tried to come out by random movements. These random movements and actions are called exploratory movements. By chance it happens to press the lever – the door opens, it comes out and eats the fish. The cat is starved again and put in the box and the whole thing is repeated many times. The cat learns the method to open the door. Now if it is put in the box, it can easily open the door. It is called trial and error.

23. This is a chance learning or S.R. (Stimulus Response) learning.This is also called Associative learning

24. thorndike’s experiment

26. THETHEORY • Learning means establishing proper bond between stimulus and response. This theory is also called connectionism. According to Thorndike Learning is a mechanical process. We learn from mistakes. The correct responses are rewarded and they are stamped in. • “Learning is a process of acquiring and stabilizing successful or rewarded responses and of eliminating the unsuccessful or unrewarded responses.” • Education is the process of acquiring and stabilizing successful habit pattern through rewarded responses.

27. Thorndike's laws of learning and its educational implications http://dgwaymade.blogspot.in/2010/10/thorndikes-laws-of-learning-and-its.html

28. 1)      Law of Readiness:- First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner

29. 2)      Law of Exercise:- The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.

30. 3)      Law of Effect:- The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’

31. 4)      Law of Multiple – Response- According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate behaviour is hit upon. Without varying the responses, the correspondence for the solution might never be elicited. If the individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than mechanically persisting in the same way. Throndike’s cat in the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till finally it hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.

32. 5)      The Law of Set or Attitude- Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines not only what the person will do but what will satisfy or annoy him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to make a century, he will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly, unless he sets to get first position and has the attitude of being at the top, would while away the time and would not learn much. Hence, learning is affected more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.

33. 6)      The Law of Associative Shifting- According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is capable, associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said ‘ stand up’. After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering the command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish and the over all command of ‘stand up’ was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her hind legs.

34.       According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children. •       A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes. •      In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the classroom the students should be properly motivated. •       Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept. •       Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.

35.    The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus, the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the teacher. •       The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the delinquent children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory. •       With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the children such as anger, jealousy etc. •       The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if required. •    The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct oral drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.

36. Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning

37. ivan Pavlov • Ivan Pavlov was a famous Russian psychologist • He lived from 1849 to 1936 • He made many discoveries in the psychology field • Pavlov won the Nobel Prize in psychology in 1904

38. What is Classical Conditioning? • Classical Conditioning- A learned reflex/response that you do when evoked by a stimulus • Pavlov performed experiments with dogs on to collect saliva • He noticed that the dogs would salivate when powdered meat was present

39. Pavlov associated the ringing of a bell with the presence of powdered meat • He rang the bell every time the dogs were served food • Pavlov started ringing the bell and the dogs would salivate without the powdered meat being present • Thus, a learned reflex

41. In the Classroom • Teachers can use classical conditioning to quiet down the students • Example: • First day of class, students walk into class and teacher sits at desk • Teacher goes towards board when ready to teach and children quiet down • Second day of class, students are chatty when the teacher goes to the board. Teacher asks to be quiet. • Third day of class, students are automatically quiet when the teacher walks to the board

42. Students will be conditioned in a positive manner • Students will learn the expectations of their teachers • Students will learn the expectations of their school

43. Operant Conditioning theory (Skinner)

44. Experiment with Rats • MATERIALS: Skinner Box which is a small chamber in which an animal learns how to make a particular response for which the consequence can be controlled by the researcher, it contains a speaker, signal lights, lever, food dispenser which dispenses pellets, and grid floors which can deliver a mild electric shock. There is also a cumulative recorder which records the frequency and speed of the desired response which is made by the pressing of a lever.

45. PROCEDURE: A hungry rat was placed in the Skinner box and every time it pressed the lever it was rewarded with a food pellet in the food dish which was used to reinforce its behaviour.

46. RESULTS: Rats scurried around the box randomly touching parts of the floor and wall. Eventually the rat accidently touched the lever and a food pellet was released. The same sequence was repeated and with more trials the time taken to press the lever eventually decreased. The random movements of the rat eventually became deliberate, rats then ate the food as fast as they could press the lever.

48. Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behaviour through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through Operant conditioning, an individual makes a association between a particular behaviour and a consequence. Example- parents rewarding a child’s excellent grade with candy or some other prize.

49. Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers: Positive reinforcers are favourable events or outcomes that are presented after the behaviour. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behaviour is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavourable events or outcomes after the display of a behaviour. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour increases.

50. Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous reinforcement schedule • Fixed interval reinforcement schedule • Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule • Variable reinforcement schedule