Psychological Foundations

1. Psychological Foundations Memory

2. Memory Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time

3. Memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval • Encoding inputs information into the memory system • Storage is the retention of the encoded information • Retrieval is getting the information out of memory and back into awareness

4. Three Types of Encoding • Acoustic encoding: input of sounds, words, and music • Semantic encoding: input of words and their meaning • Visual encoding: input of images • Recoding: taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can make sense of it

5. Three Stages of Storage Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.

6. Components of Long-term Memory

7. Retrieval • Recall: accessing information without cues • Recognition: identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue • Encoding specificity principle: the hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace. • Relearning: learning information that was previously learned

8. Memory in the Brain The amygdala is involved in emotional memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks

9. Memory Problems: Amnesia • Amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories • Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma

10. Why We Forget

11. Memory Errors

12. Forgetting: Interference Forgetting may be caused by failure to retrieve information This can be due to interference, either retroactive or proactive

13. Why is Eyewitness Testimony Unreliable? • Suggestibility: Effects of misinformation from external sources lead to the creation of false memories • Misinformation effect: Given incorrect information, witnesses may misremember the original event

14. Memory Enhancing Strategies Techniques to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory include: • Rehearsal • Chunking • Elaborative rehearsal • Mnemonic device

15. How to Study • Use elaborative rehearsal • Apply the self-reference effect • Don’t forget the forgetting curve • Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse • Be aware of interference • Keep moving • Get enough sleep • Make use of mnemonic devices

16. Practice Problem Use a memory enhancing strategy presented in this section to remember the different types of amnesia and the different types of interference

17. Quick Review • Explain the three types of encoding • Describe the three stages of memory storage • Describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative memory and semantic and episodic memory • Explain retrieval cues and define recall, recognition, and relearning • Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory

18. More Quick Review • Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia • Explain encoding failure and give examples of common memory errors • Describe the unreliability of eyewitness testimony • Explain the misinformation effect • Recognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies, including mnemonics, rehearsal, chunking, and peg-words