HBS – exam review

1. HBS – exam review Practice Questions

2. Unit 1 • Identity

3. Different Tissue Types • What type of tissue is Blood ? • What tissue type is the epidermis? • What tissues make up the brain? • The bicep is what type of tissue?

4. Different Tissue Types • Blood is Connective • The epidermis is Epithelial • The Brain is Nervous • The bicep is Muscular

5. Restriction Enzymes • Restriction enzymes cut DNA • Different restriction enzymes cut DNA • Different fragment sizes are cut with different restriction enzymes • Hind III will cut one spot, EcoR I will cut two spots, etc. • Can use this information to match at a crime scene, to match parents to children, etc.

6. Restriction Enzymes • How long would fragments be if only cut with E? • How long would fragments be if cut with E and H?

7. DNA fingerprints • Electrophoresis gels used to separate DNA fragments • Child has pattern for several different genes, which parents do this child belong to?

8. Which parent belongs to this child? • Lane A – child cut with Hind III • Lane B – child cut with Eco R1 • Lane C – parent #1 cut with Hind III • Lane D – parent #1 cut with Eco R1 • Lane E – parent #2 cut with Hind III • Land F – parent #2 cut with Eco R1

9. Forensics • Male vs female pelvis – what the difference structurally? • Calculations - using femur • 2.32 x length of femur +65 = height • 2.47 x length of femur +54 = height • Can also use humerus • o  Male: (2.97 x MLH) + 73.5 cm ± 3.94 cm • o  Female: (3.14 x MLH) + 65 cm ± 3.72 cm • or radius • o  Male: (3.7 x MLR) + 80.5 cm ± 3.94 cm • o  Female: (3.9 x MLR) + 73.41 cm ± 3.72 cm

10. Forensics • How to calculate height? What bones can we use? • Calculations • Male: 2.32 x length of femur +65 = height • Female: 2.47 x length of femur +54 = height • What if femur is 64 cm?

11. Forensics • Male = 213.5 cm or 7’ • Female = 212.1 cm or 6’91/2”

12. Unit 2 • Communication

13. Eyeball anatomy

14. Eye • Path of light through the eye to retina • Put in order: retina, optic nerve, vitreous humor, aqueous humor, cornea, lens, pupil (iris)

15. Eye • Cornea, aqueous humor, pupil (iris), lens, vitreous humor, retina, optic nerve

16. Blood sugar regulation • Which hormones are produced to regulate blood sugar? • In presence of high glucose, body produces ________. • In presence of low glucose, body produces _________.

17. Blood sugar regulation • Insulin and Glucagon • Insulin • Glucagon

18. Action potential and neuron impulse transmission • This allows neurons to send and receive signals with speed and efficiency compared to other cells • What makes them different than other cells? • Remember all membrane proteins….Na channel, K channel, Na/K pump • What happens at each step?

19. Polarized (at rest) – positive charge outside, negative charge inside • High sodium outside , high potassium inside • Na/K pump – 3 Na out , 2 K in • Depolarization (transmitting impulse) – Na rushes in through channel, K channel closed • Causes cell to become more negative on outside • Repolarization (back to resting) – Na channel closed, K channel open, K flows out of cell • Returns it to positive charge outside, negative inside

20. Different functions of brain lobes • Frontal -Personality changes, problem solving , reasoning, long term memory • Temporal – hearing • Occipital – vision • Parietal – bodily sensations such as touch, temp, pain

21. reflex arc • When you see a roach on your shirt…how is the signal sent to react? • Put in order: • sensory neurons – association neurons –motor neurons - hand - Eyes

22. reflex arc • Eyes – sensory neurons – association neurons (interneurons) – motor neurons - hand

23. CNS vs. PNS • Which structures are in each? • CNS – brain and spinal cord • PNS – all nervous tissue outside the brain and spinal cord

24. Unit 3 • Power

25. Digestion • Which enzyme digests: • carbohydrates? – Amylase • proteins? – Pepsin • fats? - Bile • The rate of digestion/enzyme activity is affected by pH, concentration, and temp. • Indicator solutions: • Biurets solution – protein • Benedicts solution – starch (broken down to glucose)

26. Remember all organs we covered and which systems they belong to… • Respiratory • Nervous • Endocrine • Digestive • Urinary • Muscular • Skeletal • Integumentary • Cardiovascular

27. Digestive System Anatomy

28. Respiratory system • How does CO2 and O2 move from blood stream to alveoli and from alveoli to blood stream? • Diffusion across concentration gradients

29. Production of energy - ATP • Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + ATP • Three ways to get ATP • CREATINE - The earliest available ATP in the muscle comes from the ATP that is already available within the cell. Once physical exercise begins, this ATP works instantly. This comes from creatine. Phosphate is also stored in the cells and is readily converted to ATP. In either form, with maximum exertion, all of the available cellular ATP is used up in less than thirty seconds. • GLYCOGEN - The next available ATP comes from the process called anaerobic respiration. In an oxygen-breathing mammal, anaerobic respiration is a stopgap measure to produce ATP while waiting for oxygen to come to the rescue. It is not a very efficient way to make ATP, but during maximal exertion, after we’ve used up all the available ATP, and until more oxygen arrives on the scene, it is the only system we have for about a minute or so to produce ATP. How inefficient is it? Without oxygen, for each molecule of glucose (required to produce ATP) we manufacture 2 molecules of ATP. With oxygen, one molecule of glucose will produce about 30 molecules of ATP. In other words, ATP is produced about 15 times more efficiently with oxygen than without it. What is worse, without oxygen, a byproduct, called Lactic Acid, is produced. Too much Lactic Acid will cause the muscles to tighten and reduce their power, otherwise known as ‘the monkey on the back’ syndrome. • GLUCOSE - Finally, once oxygen becomes available to the muscle and remains available to the muscle, ATP is produced in the most abundant and efficient manner (aerobic respiration… also known as the Krebs Cycle). Swimmers who can continuously deliver very high amounts of oxygen to the muscle during maximum exercise have what is called a high VO2 Max. These are the most conditioned and/or the most capable endurance athletes.

30. Urinary System - Kidney function • Nephron – functional unit • Path of urine formation • Glomerulus, bowmans capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, ureter • Function of glomerulus • Filtration • GFR = 125 mL of blood filtered per minute

31. Nephron

32. Urinary System – function of ADH • Triggers cascade of events – Na rises, hypothalamus has osmoreceptors that sense, signal pituitary gland to release ADH, absorbed by nephrons in kidney, tells nephron to reabsorb more water into blood, Na levels lower, hypothalamus senses and stops secretion of ADH by pituitary gland, distal convoluted tubule of nephron retains water in tubules and secretes as urine, Na rises…. • ADH responds to water levels while aldosterone responds to electrolyte (ion) levels

33. Urinalysis • Microscopic examination – • Red blood cells • White blood cells • Epithelial cells • Crystals • Bacteria • Macroscopic examination – color, clarity • Chemical composition tests - pH, specific gravity, protein content, glucose content, ketone content, white blood cell content, sugar content

34. Oxygenated vs. Deoxygenated Blood • To and from lungs – pulmonary artery (oxygen poor blood) and pulmonary vein (oxygen rich blood)- • To and from body – aorta—>body vena cava • Role of cardiovascular vs. Respiratory systems – how exchange happens • Exercise – how these systems DELIVER

35. Energy • Endergonic (anabolic)–> ADP + P=ATP • Exergonic (catabolic) ATP – P= ADP

36. Unit 4 • Movement

37. Muscle types

38. Muscle tissue • Which action is performed by striated muscle tissue under voluntary control? • All skeletal muscle functions!!!! Raising your arm, walking, pointing your finger, kicking a soccer ball, moving your neck to the left, raising your shoulders, inhaling into your inspiratory reserve volume using your abdominal muscles • What about smooth muscle? • What about cardiac muscle?

39. Types of joints • Fibrous- connect bones without allowing any movement. The bones of your skull and pelvis are held together by fibrous joints. The union of the spinous processes and vertebrae are fibrous joints. • Cartilaginous- are joints in which the bones are attached by cartilage. These joints allow for only a little movment, such as in the spine or ribs. • Synovial - allow for much more movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavaties between bones in synovial joints are filled with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones. • Range of motion – which is greatest and which is least? Synovial of course, then cartilaginous, then fibrous have no movement

40. SYNOVIAL JOINTS

41. Joint types • Which moves in only one direction? Hinge • Which type is the elbow? Hinge • Make sure to know movements of each and examples of each in body

42. Range of Motion • Measured with a goniometer • Measure: • o  Depression and elevation • o  Rotation and circumduction • o  Flexion and extension (and hyperextension) • o  Abduction and adduction • o  Plantar flexion and dorsiflexion

43. Muscle contraction: • Power stroke follows:   ATP molecule which is bound to the myosin head is hydrolyzed to ADP + Pi.  It (ADP) remains for the moment on the myosin head. The energy released by this process causes the myosin head to swivel.  (Actually, it straightens out.) Activated myosin head will now bind to the actin, forming a cross bridge.  This formation is a spontaneous reaction. In the process, the ADP + Pi is released and the head flexes (to a bent, lower energy position), causing the thin filament to be pulled along the myosin. Myosin head remains bound until a new ATP molecule binds to it.  The next (new) ATP causes the head to be released from the actin, thus allowing the head to repositioned for another power stroke. •  Sliding filament theory = shortening of the sarcomere in an "all-or-none" pattern.  Refer to rope climbing analogy.  REMEMBER THAT ONLY THE SARCOMERE SHORTENS, NOT THE PROTEIN FIBERS.

44. Muscle contraction • Process of myosin heads form cross bridges with actin filaments, when do they detach?

45. In presence of ATP • So what is rigor mortis???

46. Muscle contraction • Which ions would placing muscle fiber in create best contraction? Why?

47. Answer: • Calcium and ATP • Ca2+ binds to the troponin, causing a shift of the tropomyosin.  • ATP needed to release after powerstroke

48. Narrowed Arteries • How does doppler ultrasound reveal arteries that are narrowed? • Doppler ultrasound uses reflected sound waves to assess blood flow through a vessel. You can use a doppler device to listen to blood moving through the vessels of the arm and ankle, and use systolic pressure values to compute an Ankle Brachial Index (ABI) and determine overall Peripheral Artery Disease.

49. Stroke volume vs. cardiac output • Cardiac output is a measure of how much blood is pumped by both ventricles in one minute. It is computed by multiplying your heart rate by the stroke volume, the amount of blood being pumped out of the heart with each heart beat.  On average, the stroke volume remains relatively stable at 75 ml/beat. • Cardiac output (ml/min)  =  stroke volume (ml/beat)  x  heart rate (beats/min)

50. How to test for different blood types? • If I dripped the serum into different blood types, what would I observe • Anti – A serum • Anti – B serum • A – agglutination with anti A • B – agglutination with anti B • AB – agglutination with antiA and antiB • O – no agglutination