Transformation of Turkey: 1908-1946

1. ATA 641 BOĞAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY 2007 Prof. Dr. Zafer Toprak www.ata.boun.edu.tr

2. The First Part (Seven Weeks)Political and Economic Transformationa) The Second Constitutional Era [1908-1920] b) The Single-Party Era [1923-1946] The Second Part (Seven Weeks)The Social and Cultural Transformation a) The Second Constitutional Era [1908-1920] b) The Single-Party Era [1923-1946]

3.  Week I The Young Turks and the Unionists: Nationalist Response to Nationalisms Genç [Jön]Türkler - Osmanlı İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti The Young Turk Revolution of 1908; the Ottoman Parliament; the Balkan Wars, Word War I; the National Economy; the Emancipation of Woman Roderic H. Davison, “From Empire to Republic, 1909-1923,” in Turkey, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1968, pp. 109-127. Feroz Ahmad, “The Constitutional Revolution, Reform, and War, 1908-1918,” in Turkey – The Quest for Identity, Oxford; Oneworld, 2003, pp. 49-73.

4. Week II War and Peace: A Path towards a Homogeneous Nation State The Fall of the Ottoman Empire; the Armistice; The Sèvres Treaty; The Struggle for Independence; the Lausanne Treaty. Cihan Harbi – Mütareke – Milli Mücadele Zafer Toprak, “Nationalism and Economics in the Young Turk Era (1908-1918),” in Industrialisation, Communication et Rapports Sociaux en Turquie et en Mediterranée Orientale,(eds. Jacques Thobie et Salgur Kançal) Paris; L’Harmattan, 1994, s. 260-266. A. L. Macfie, “The End of the Ottoman Empire,” in The End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1923, Longman, 1998, pp. 182-208.

5. Week III From Empire to Nation: The Emergence of Modern Turkey The 1924 Constitution; the Republican People’s Party; Early Reforms; the Legal Reception Movement; the Great Speech and the Congress of 1927; the Uprisings. 1924 Teşkilat-ı Esasiye Kanunu – Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası [Partisi] – Nutuk (1927) Bernard Lewis, “The Kemalist Republic,” chapter in The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1968, pp. 238-293.  Feroz Ahmad, “The Kemalist Era, 1919-1938” in Turkey – The Quest for Identity, Oxford; Oneworld, 2003, pp. 75-94.

6. Week IV Reforms and The Single-Party Era The 1931 and 1935 Congresses of the RPP; The Opposition; New Cultural Institutions and Reforms; Turkey on the Eve of World War II. Terakkiperver Fırka –1931 – 1935 Kurultayları –Serbest Fırka Kemal Karpat, “The Establishment and Development of the Republic,” chapter in Turkey’s Politics – The Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H. Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp: 32-76. Kemal Karpat, “The Economic and Social Transformation,” chapter in Turkey’s Politics – The Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H. Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp: 77-97.

7. Week V Turkish Economy and Society in the Inter-War Years : 1923-1939 İzmir Economic Congress; National Economic Policy; Great Depression; Economic Recession and Distress; Economic Planning in the 30s’; Sumerbank and Etibank İzmir İktisat Kongresi – Milli İktisat – Büyük Buhran – Sanayi Planları Bent Hansen, “Postwar Recovery, 1923-29,” chapter in The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth – Egypt and Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 312-318. Bent Hansen, “The Etatist Experiment, 1929-50,” chapter in The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth – Egypt and Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 319-336.

8. Week VI The Second World War and the End of the Single-Party Era “National Chief” and the RPP; Turkish Neutrality; War Economy and Inflation; National Defence Law; the Capital Tax; the Lot of the Peasantry Milli Şef – Milli Korunma Kanunu – Varlık Vergisi – Toprak Mahsulleri Vergisi – Çiftçiyi Topraklandırma Kanunu Kemal Karpat, “The Social Classes and Wartime Developments,” chapter in Turkey’s Politics – The Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H. Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp: 98-133. Kemal Karpat, “Modern Turkey,” chapter in The Cambridge History of Islam, volume I, edited by P.M. Hold, Ann K. S. Lambton & Bernard Lewis, Cambridge University Press, 1970, pp. 527-565.

9. Week  VII The Coming of Political Democracy Demokrat Parti Bernard Lewis, “The Republic after Kemal,” chapter in The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1968, pp. 294-319. Feroz Ahmad, “Towards Multi-Party Politics and Democracy, 1938-1960,” in Turkey – The Quest for Identity, Oxford; Oneworld, 2003, pp. 75-94.

10. Intellectual Stages of Modernity in Turkey Secularism - Çağdaşlaşma, Batı[lı]laşma, Muasırlaşma, Asrîleşme, The Tanzimat Reformers [Reşit Paşa, Ali Paşa, Fuat Paşa] The Young Ottomans [Şinasi, Namık Kemal, Ali Suavi, Mithat Paşa] The Young Turks [Ahmet Rıza, Prens Sabahattin, Abdullah Cevdet] The Unionists – The CUP [Committee of Union and Progress][Talat Paşa, Enver Paşa, Cemal Paşa, Ziya Gökalp] The Republicans [Kemalists][Mustafa Kemal Paşa, İsmet İnönü, Celal Bayar]

11. Political Regimes in Turkey – Systems of Government I - Autocracy /Absolutist Monarchy – [Mutlakiyetçi Monarşi] Pre-Tanzimat Era – Tanzimat Era – Post Tanzimat Era II - Constitutional Monarchy [Meşruti (Anayasal) Monarşi] a) The First Constitutional Era [1876-1878] b)The Second Constitutional Era [1908-1920] İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi III – The Republican Regime [Türkiye Cumhuriyeti] a) The Single-Party Era [1923-1945]The Autoritarian Modernity b) The Multi-Party Era [1946 -2006]The Political Democracy

12. Political Regimes in Turkey – Systems of Government The Dynastic Period – Devlet-i Al-i Osman – OttomansSultan – Supreme Authority I - Autocracy /Absolutist Monarchy – [Mutlakiyetçi Monarşi] a)The Classical Era [1299 – 1789] from Osman to Selim III Sögüt – Bursa – Edirne – İstanbul b)The Modern Era [1789-1822] Selim III, Mahmut II, Abdülmecit, Abdülaziz, Abdülhamit II, Mehmet Reşat, Vahdettin

13. I ) The Classical Era – Social Strata The Palace entourage – Kapıkulua) Seyfiye [Army], b) Kalemiye [Primitive Bureaucracy], c) İlmiye [Religious authorities] The Reaya – Peasantry (Subjects of the Sultan)The Guilds [Lonca] and Merchants Lack of middling strata (bourgeoisie) – Middle Class II ) The Modern Era The Nation-State Process The Making of Ottoman Middling Strata – Middle ClassThe Emergence of NationalismsThe liberterian Ideas – Public opinion – Civil society The Emergence of Ottoman Intelligentsia

14. II - Constitutional Monarchy [Meşruti (Anayasal) Monarşi]a) The First Constitutional Era [1876-1878] Birinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi The First Constitution [Kanun-ı Esasi 1876] The First Parliament [Mebusan Meclisi – Ayan Meclisi 1877-78] b)The Second Constitutional Era [1908-1920] İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi III – The Turkish Republic [Türkiye Cumhuriyeti]a) The Single-Party Era [1923-1945]b) The Multi-Party Era [1946 -2006]

15. Emergence of Ottoman middling strata in the 19th century The New Bureaucracy (Weberian type) The Tanziman men The Tanzimat Edict [Tanzimat Fermanı] (1839) Rational, Professional Tanzimat ReformsThe Centralization of the StateA Modern State Apparatus – Ministries etc.A Modern ArmyNew Financial and Economic StructureNew Legislations – Codes borrowed from abroad New generations trained in Secular High Schools Civil Service Academy(Mülkiye Mektebi )War Academy(Harbiye Mektebi) Medical College (Tıbbiye Mektebi)

16. The Young Turk Era in Turkish History 1908-1950 The Young Turk movement 1889 - Ottoman patriotism Who are the Young Turks ? An organized opposition of reformist Ottoman patriots Against absolutist regime of Abdulhamid II to reinstate constitution & parliament to propagate liberal and constitutional ideas European circle - Ottoman constitutionalists in exile Ahmed Rıza -Ottoman nationalist - Unionist Prens Sabahattin- liberal, minimal government, free enterprise Aptullah Cevdet - Westernist Congresses of Ottoman liberal and reformists in Paris – 1902 and 1907

17. Young Turk Era 1908-1918 harbinger / forerunnerof Republican Turkey Fortells the coming of a new regime / state Political changes The burgeoning of secular nation-state The rise of constitutionalism Basic rights – Citizens Socio-economic and cultural changes The new economic policy – Import Substitution – National Economy Secularization - Emancipation of women

18. The officers from the Third (Macedonian) and Second (Edirne) armies coming from the lower middle class 1906-1908 increasing discontent- rising prices- payment of salaries was in arrears Signs of discontent Strikes + small-scale uprisingsMacedonian problem Foreign control

19. The elections 1908 – Two-tier model [İki dereceli seçim] First electors – Second electors The CUP – the Committee of Union and Progress [İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti [Fırkası] Mehmed Cavid, Finance minister in June 1909 Mehmed Talat, Interior minister in August 1909 - The Party of Ottoman Liberals – [Osmanlı Ahrar Fırkası] splinter group which broke away from CUP – February 1910 The Party of Freedom and Understanding November 1911 [Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası] The Ottoman Socialist Party [Osmanlı Sosyalist Fırkası]

20. The Counter-revolution - April 1909 [31 Mart Vak’ası] a) Demand for the Restoration of the Şeriatb) The Dismissal of the cabinetc) Seclusion of Muslim women – liberated by the new regime The Third Army and its Unionist supporters denounced the mutiny as unconstitutional Officers loyal to the constitution organized The Action Army [Hareket Ordusu] led by Mahmut Şevket Paşa set out from Salonica to restore order in Istanbul & punish the mutineers

21. Abdülhamit II toppled from power ratified by the fetva, a legal opinion, issued by the Şeyhulislam the accession to sultanate of Mehmet (V) Reşat (65) The liberal and conservative opponents of the CUP crushed Mahmut Şevket Paşa dominant force – virtual dictator of the new regime Unionists – his junior partners

22. Serious blows struck at the new regime Bulgaria declared its independence – October 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia Herzegovina Crete announced its decision to unite with Greece Uprisings – Albania, Yemen (İmam Yahya) The occupation of Tripolitania [Trablusgarp] by Italy - 1911 The Balkan War [Balkan Harbi / Savaşı ] - 1912-1913 1912 – Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria - Ottoman Empire

23. The Treaty of London 1912 The Porte surrendered Edirne to Bulgariaalong with all territory west of de Erez-Midya line The İstanbul Peace Agreement 1913between O.E. And Bulgaria Eastern Thrace – including Edirne & Dimotoka – to O.E.Exchange of populatitions

24. The Babıali Coup [Babiali Baskını] Mahmut Şevket Paşa as Grand Vizier and War Minister Unionist – junior partners Mahmut Şevket Paşa assasinated CUP monopoly of power from 1913 onwards 1913 Constitutional amendments Took away power from the sultan - vested it in the legislature (parliament) and the cabinet

25. A program of political, social & economic reforms A) Military Reform - Reorganization of the armyOlder officer corps purged B)Administrative reform -Provincial administration - decentralization (adem-i merkeziyet) C) Abolition of the capitulations 1914 - Unilateral Priviledges bestowed to foreigners The Great War - The First World War Harb-ı Umumî – Cihan Harbi – Birinci Dünya Savaşı

26. SECULARISM • Secularization – Laiklik • A) Judicial System • B) Educational System • Emancipation of Women

27. A) The Judicial Unification [Tevhid-i Adalet] i) Removal of the Şeyhülislam(highest religious authority) from the cabinet (1916) + his jurisdiction limited ii) Religious courts[Şer’i Mahkemeler]under the control of the Ministry of Justiceiii) The Foundation of theMinistry of Religious Foundations[Evkaf Nezareti] B) The Educational Unification [Tevhid-i Tedrisat] i) Religious colleges (medrese)under the Ministry of Education[Maarif Nezareti] ii) The modernization of theCurricula of the higher medreses

28. C) Emancipation of Women • Private sphere versus public sphere • i) Law on inheritance, based on German code (1913)ii)Family law (the territory of the Şeriat) Decree for Family Law - [Hukuk-ı Aile Nizamnamesi](1917) • Uniformity of all Ottoman subjects a) Right to take initiative for divorceb) Marriages before a magistratec) Brides to be aged over 16

29. Position of women Ideology : The policy of the CUP (state feminism) + The effects of the World War – Lack of manpower compensated for by women hastened the entry of women into the labour market Women becamevisible Women took part in social life Women appeared in public

30. Women went to theatres and musical performances Meetings - Speeches in nationalist clubs Girls - the schooling system at different levelsPrimary education compulsory for girls (1913) Higher education - the teacher training colleges Courses at the University (1914) – [İnas Darülfünunu] World War I The Ottoman Society for the Employment of Women[Osmanlı Kadınları Çalıştırma Cemiyet] to recruit women for service in industry

31. The Making of Civil Society The Concept of Citizenry Law for the Associations [Cemiyetler Kanunu] 1909 Philanthropic – Communitarian - Labour - Women associations Nationalist organizations - Turkish Hearths [Türk Ocakları] 1911 Committee of National Defence[Milli Müdafaa Cemiyeti ] (1913) - created a strong “home front” - the Balkan War Participation in politics – Public OpinionPolitical game became less elitistIt also became more brutal

32. The Age of Ideologies 1914 - 1945 The Young Turk Era Laboratory for Turkish Republic 1913 – a turnaround in the ideological currents

33. Stages of Turkish Nationalism a) First stage – The proto stage Cultural (literary and linguistic) movement in the 19th century – up to 1908 Symbol: Namık Kemal b) Second stage – The MetamorphosisEconomic and social movement 1908-1918 Ziya Gökalp c) Third stage - The final stage Political movement 1919-1923 Mustafa Kemal

34. Late comers – Italy – Germany - Turkey • Similarity with German Stages after Ziya Gökalp • First stage – • The proto stage Cultural (literary and linguistic) movement • up to the 1840s’ • Symbol: Fiche • b) Second stage – The MetamorphosisEconomic and social movement up to 1870s’ • List • c) Third stage - The final stage • Political movement – German Unity • Bismarck from 1870s’

35. STATISM - DEVLETÇİLİK National Economy after Friedrich List (German economist – opponent of classical economics) State economics (Devlet iktisadiyatı) a neo-mercantilist policy a prototype of statism Insistence on “economic independence” support for indigenous (local)capital foreign capital = exploitation National credit institutions (milli banka) Support for national bourgeoisie (millî burjuvazi)

36. From economic liberalism to national economy– Milli İktisat) a) Free Tradeimposed on Turkey by capitulationsClassical liberal point of view Removal of traditional barriers - guilds New and modern legislation on transactions & ownership b) Institutions : Chambers of commerce (Ticaret Odaları)& associations

37. c) Labor DisputesSocial unrest & strikes1908 Labour legislation – 1909 - Legislation on strikesBan on trades-unions and strikes favoured entrepreneurs d) Agriculture a) Property rights of the landowners b) Modernization & investment in agriculture (irrigation projects + infrastructural works + credit facilities)

38. Modern Finances Modern Budget in 1909 prepared by Cavit Bey Minister of Finances Unified and general budget Increase in incomes inspection & collection of taxes Budget control through Parliament = Democracy

39. National Economic Policy Balkan Wars - a new era - to reliance upon internal strata Loss of Salonica (1912) shift of political center (CUP) to Istanbul The Rise of Nationalism Statist and Neo-mercantilist Era State Economics – Devlet İktisadiyatı radical steps – liberalism challenged

40. Economic liberalism = low customs duties jeopardized interests of the local producers Complaint of theMuslim merchants unequal competition by foreigners and non-Muslims due to capitulations Old style, well-organized trade corporations (petty producers) versus non-Muslim mercantile interests Muslim-Turkish artisans and merchants - backbone of the new nationalist ideology The Rise of “National Bourgeoisie”

41. Protectionalism = Import Substitution Economic nationalism neo-mercantilism or protectionism versus liberalism and free trade – comparative advantages Liberal [classical] economics of Adam Smith– not universal suits industrialized economy & imperialistic policies Free trade – beneficial policy for England not for Turkey Nation as an economic unity – (agriculture & industry & trade) A complete whole – Küll-i tam

42. Import Substitution – Home Product (Yerli Malı) 1909 Bursa Exposition – Bursa Sergisi Austro-Hungarian Boycott 1908 – Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina Muslim boycott of 1913 – National economic policy Muslims to purchase from their co-religious shopkeepers

43. The Spirit of Industrialization Decree for the Encouragement of Industry (1913)[Teşvik-i Sanayi Kanunu] Joint-stock companies, indigenous – national [milli] cooperatives & banking institutions The Industrial census 1913-1915 Economic periodicals Sanayi Mecmuası – İktisadiyat Mecmuası TheNational Industrialists Society(Millî Fabrikacılar Cemiyeti)

44. War Economics – The Great War (1914-1918) Financial & Economic Independence Capitulations abolished in 1914 - Public Debts postponed New customs tariffsspecific and selective [protective] tariffs replacing ad-volarem [liberal] tariffs protective measures for the infant industries and local products

45. National market National economic policy – the motto of both CUP & RPP Social basis of National Liberation War (Milli Mücadele) Employment of Muslims in economic & financial sectors Imperative language - Turkish in business correspondence and official accounting

46. Allocation mechanism – Rationing (İaşe) Kara Kemal– architect of the “national economy program” – founder of the Special Trade Commission & “national” joint-stock companies – Milli Şirketler The Ministry of Rationing – İaşe Nezareti Creation of Muslim monopoly of trade - capital accumulation

47. Guilds encouraged to invest in national companies Reversal of official policy – CUP had abolished the guilds Created “trade associations” in their places Support for “national bourgeoisie” capital accumulation by small merchants of Muslim & provincial origins Price policy during WWIfavoring Anatolian large farmers = Accumulation for Agrarian bourgeoisie

48. National Banking Institutions National Credit Bank - İtibar-ı Milli Bankası(1917) Substitute for the Ottoman Bank Merged with İş Bankası in 1927 Local banking institutionsin Anatolia under the aegis of CUP local clubs Muslim provincial notables & moneyed men Support for CUP policies Support for National Struggle

49. FROM CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY TO REPUBLICTHE INTERREGNUM1918 – 1923

50. The Mudros Armistice31 October 1918 (Mondros Mütarekesi)The Congress of Erzurum 23 July 1919The Congress of Sivas 4 September 1919The Treaty of Sevres 10 August 1920The National Pact (Misak-ı Milli) 20 January 1920The Lausanne Peace Treaty 24 July 1923