LPG ( Liquefied Petroleum Gas)

1. LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) Liquefied petroleum gas (also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, or liquid propane gas) is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as autogas. The gas is stored under pressure in liquid form in purpose made tanks.  At room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure Autogas is in a gaseous state, changing to liquid when subjected to pressure. 

2. LPG is a mixture of commercial butane and commercial propane having both saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. LPG has a lower energy density than either petrol or fuel-oil, so the equivalent fuel consumption is higher Being in a liquid state under low pressures gives Autogas an advantage over natural gas which will only turn to liquid at extremely low temperatures. Therefore with Autogas more fuel can be stored for the same weight and volume than with natural gas.

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS DENSITY LPG at atmospheric pressure and temperature is a gas which is 1.5 to 2.0 times heavier than air. It is readily liquefied under moderate pressures. The density of the liquid is approximately half that of water and ranges from 0.525 to 0.580 @ 15 deg. C. VAPOUR PRESSURE The pressure inside a LPG storage vessel/ cylinder will be equal to the vapour pressure corresponding to the temperature of LPG in the storage vessel. The vapour pressure is dependent on temperature as well as on the ratio of mixture of hydrocarbons.

4. FLAMMABILITY LPG has an explosive range of 1.8% to 9.5% volume of gas in air. This is considerably narrower than other common gaseous fuels. This gives an indication of hazard of LPG vapour accumulated in low lying area in the eventuality of the leakage or spillage. The auto-ignition temperature of LPG is around 410-580 deg. C and hence it will not ignite on its own at normal temperature. COMBUSTION The combustion reaction of LPG increases the volume of products in addition to the generation of heat. LPG requires up to 50 times its own volume of air for complete combustion . Thus it is essential that adequate ventilation is provided when LPG is burnt in enclosed spaces otherwise asphyxiation due to depletion of oxygen apart from the formation of carbon-dioxide can occur.

5. ODOUR LPG has only a very faint smell, and consequently, it is necessary to add some odourant, so that any escaping gas can easily be detected. COLOUR LPG is colourless both in liquid and vapour phase. During leakage the vapourisation of liquid cools the atmosphere and condenses the water vapour contained in them to form a whitish fog which may make it possible to see an escape of LPG. TOXICITY LPG even though slightly toxic, is not poisonous in vapour phase, but can, however, suffocate when in large concentrations due to the fact that it displaces oxygen.

6. LPG Systems in Automobiles A tank constructed from steel is fitted in the boot. It is fitted with a multi function valve. This unit comprises of a fuel gauge, a pressure relief valve,  excess flow valve and various shut off valves.  It is filled via a filling point located usually at the rear of the vehicle.

7. The gas in liquid form is carried through plastic coated copper pipes to the front of the car. Here it goes through a filter and than to the vapouriser. At this point it is converted to a gas ready for use by the engine.  The flow of gas to the engine is controlled by an e.m.u . (electronic management unit). This unit works alongside the car's own e.c.u. constantly monitoring the exhaust emissions and adjusting the gas supply accordingly. This unit is self learning and adapts to different drivers and road conditions automatically. A switch on the dashboard allows you to select the option of running on gas or petrol.

9. Advantages LPG is cheaper than petrol (up to 50%) It produces less exhaust emissions than petrol It is better for the engine and it can prolong engine life In some vehicles, it can provide better performance Has a higher octane rating than petrol (108 compared to 91) Fewer toxic and smog-forming air pollutants (Nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide emissions are also 20% and 60% less, respectively.) Disadvantages It isn't highly available The initial cost for converting your vehicle to LPG is cheap It has a lower energy density than petrol No new passenger cars come readily fitted with LPG (they have to be converted) The gas tank takes up a considerable amount of space in the car boot Fewer miles on a tank of fuel

11. What is hydrogen all about? 9% of your body is made up of hydrogen Greater than 90% of all matter is hydrogen Hydrogen is 4 times lighter than air Hydrogen can power a car with a non-polluting fuel and an electric motor The combustion of hydrogen produces no carbon dioxide (CO2), particulate, or sulfur emissions. It can only produce nitrous oxide (NOX) emissions under some conditions. (DOE) The amount of energy produced by hydrogen per unit weight of fuel is about 3 times the amount of energy contained in an equal weight of gasoline, and almost 7 times that of coal. (FSEC)

12. Why hydrogen? Solve air pollution problems Eliminate dependence on oil Eliminate oil spills Create domestic jobs To have an energy source be made from unlimited, renewable, & sustainable resources

13. Advantages High safety Self-ignition = 550 vs gas at 228-501 Disperses quickly in atmosphere Cleans air Completes combustion of the unburned hydrocarbons that surround us Stores safely Can be used to replace anything using fossil fuels unless carbon is specifically needed

14. History of Hydrogen NASA 1st to experiment Apollo & Gemini By 1965 hydrogen fuel cells were standard equipment in spacecraft Fuel cell price change NASA used niobium plated with gold as a catalyst & expensive electrolyte Today platinum is used as catalyst $30,000 to $500 Hydrogen fuel cells power the shuttle's electrical systems, producing a clean byproduct—pure water, which the crew drinks. You can think of a fuel cell as a battery that is constantly replenished by adding fuel to it—it never loses its charge.

15. -First Road Legal Hydrogen Car- In the 1960s a man named Karl Kordesch used pressurized hydrogen gas to run a car, which was stored on the roof. The remodeled Austin reached a peak power of 20 kW and a maximum speed of 80 km/h. The range was 300 km. The only requirement by the licensing board was a warning sign on the roof and a strict smoking prohibition in the passenger room.

16. What hydrogen can do… Fuel today’s internal combustion engine vehicles and tomorrow’s fuel-cell vehicles Replace natural gas for heating and cooling homes and hot water heaters Wind and hydroelectric plants can produce hydrogen and store energy during off-peak hours Hydrogen production from hydrocarbons can produce carbon This carbon can be made into carbon fiber which is 10 times the strength of steel….used for auto bodies

19. Today hydrogen fuel cell driven car manufactured by the Daimler-Chrysler company. Prototype hydrogen fuel cell attached to a bicycle. brake system powered by a fuel cell, the fuel source being hydrogen stored in a pressure tank

20. Hydrogen in your car • Hydrogen Cycle • Hydrogen is infinitely recyclable and is converted back into water • The only waste in hydrogen powered cars

21. Where does Hydrogen come from? You must make it…. Electrolysis using electricity to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen Can do it anywhere Reforming fossil fuels Using a fuel processor or a reformer to split hydrocarbons into a useful hydrogen and a harmful carbon using heat Used today with fossil fuels

22. Electricity for electrolysis? Nuclear Power Hydroelectric dams Solar power Wind turbines Geothermal power Wave and tidal power Co-generation a sawmill might burn bark to create power, or a landfill might burn methane that the rotting trash produces

23. 4 Ways to Make Hydrogen ThermochemicalA steam reforming process is currently used to produce hydrogen from such fuels as natural gas, coal, methanol, or even gasoline. To draw on renewable energy sources, the gasification or pyrolysis of biomass—organic material—can be used to generate a fuel gas that can be reformed into hydrogen. ElectrochemicalThe electrolysis of water produces hydrogen by passing an electrical current through it. PhotoelectrochemicalThe photoelectrochemical (PEC) process produces hydrogen in one step, splitting water by illuminating a water-immersed semiconductor with sunlight. PhotobiologicalPhotobiological systems generally use the natural photosynthetic activity of bacteria and green algae to produce hydrogen.

24. How will the hydrogen be stored? • Developing safe, reliable, compact and cost-effective hydrogen storage is one of the biggest challenges to widespread use of fuel cell technology • Hydrogen has physical characteristics that make it difficult to store large quantities without taking up a great deal of space

25. How will the hydrogen be stored? • Hydrogen will need to be stored onboard vehicles, at hydrogen production sites, refueling stations and stationary power sites • Hydrogen has a very high energy content by weight (3x more than gasoline) and a very low energy content by volume (4x less than gasoline)

26. How will the hydrogen be stored? • If the hydrogen is compressed and stored at room temperature under moderate pressure, too large a fuel tank would be required • Researchers are trying to find light-weight, safe, composite materials that can help reduce the weight and volume of compressed gas storage systems

27. How will the hydrogen be stored? • Liquid hydrogen could be kept in a smaller tank than gaseous hydrogen, but liquefying hydrogen is complicated and not energy efficient • Liquid hydrogen is also extremely sensitive to heat and expands significantly when warmed by even a few degrees, thus the tank insulation required affects the weight and volume that can be stored

28. How will the hydrogen be stored? • If the hydrogen is compressed and cryogenically frozen it will take up a very small amount of space requiring a smaller tank, but it must be kept supercold- around -120 to -196 degrees Celsius

29. How will the hydrogen be stored? • Scientists are researching Materials-based storage • This involves tightly binding hydrogen atoms or molecules with other elements in a compound to store larger quantities of hydrogen in smaller volumes at low pressure near room temperature • This technology is considered very promising but additional research is needed to overcome problems dealing with capacity, cost, life cycle impacts and the uptake and release of hydrogen

30. How will the hydrogen be stored? • Because hydrogen is thought to be an alternative fuel for automobiles, much of the research for hydrogen storage is focused on onboard vehicles • Scientists are attempting to develop technology that can rival the performance and cost of gasoline fuel storage systems

31. How will the hydrogen be stored? • Using current storage technology, in order to place a sufficient amount of hydrogen onboard a vehicle to provide 300-mile driving range the tank would be larger that the trunk of a typical automobile • This large of a tank would add to the overall weight of the car and reduce fuel economy

32. What is a Fuel Cell? • A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, with water and heat as its by-product.

33. How can Fuel Cell technology be used? • Transportation • Stationary Power Stations • Telecommunications • Micro Power

34. How can Fuel Cell technology be used? • Transportation • All major automakers are working to commercialize a fuel cell car • Automakers and experts speculate that a fuel cell vehicle will be commercialized by 2010 • 50 fuel cell buses are currently in use in North and South America, Europe, Asia and Australia • Trains, planes, boats, scooters, forklifts and even bicycles are utilizing fuel cell technology as well

35. How can Fuel Cell technology be used? • Stationary Power Stations • Over 2,500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools and utility power plants • Most of these systems are either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance or as a grid-independent generator for locations that are inaccessible by power lines

36. How can Fuel Cell technology be used? • Telecommunications • Due to computers, the Internet and sophisticated communication networks there is a need for an incredibly reliable power source • Fuel Cells have been proven to be 99.999% reliable

37. How can Fuel Cell technology be used? • Micro Power • Consumer electronics could gain drastically longer battery power with Fuel Cell technology • Cell phones can be powered for 30 days without recharging • Laptops can be powered for 20 hours without recharging

38. What are the benefits of Fuel Cell technology? • Physical Security • Reliability • Efficiency • Environmental Benefits • Battery Replacement/Alternative • Military Applications

39. How does a Fuel Cell work?

41. Fuel Cell Stack 41

44. Types of Fuel Cells-Alkaline- Operate on compressed hydrogen and oxygen. Uses an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide. Efficiency is about 70 percent, cell output being 300 watts-5 kW Originally used by NASA on space missions, specifically in Apollo to provide electricity and drinking water. It is now finding applications in hydrogen-powered vehicles.

45. Molten Carbonate The molten carbonate fuel cell uses a molten carbonate salt as the electrolyte. It has the potential to be fueled with coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas. Efficiency ranges from 60-80 percent with an output of 2 MW. They operate at around 1,200 degrees Fahrenheit, making them too hot for home use.

46. Phosphoric Acid A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) consists of an anode and a cathode made of a finely dispersed platinum catalyst on carbon paper, and a silicon carbide matrix that holds the phosphoric acid electrolyte. This is the most commercially developed type of fuel cell and is being used in hotels, hospitals, and office buildings. The phosphoric acid fuel cell can also be used in large vehicles, such as buses. Efficiency is 40-80 percent with outputs of 200kW

47. Proton Exchange Membrane The proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell uses a fluorocarbon ion exchange with a polymeric membrane as the electrolyte. The PEM cell appears to be more adaptable to automobile use than the PAFC type of cell. These cells operate at relatively low temperatures and can vary their output to meet shifting power demands. Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent with outputs generally ranging from 50 to 250 kW

48. Solid Oxide Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) currently under development use a thin layer of zirconium oxide as a solid ceramic electrolyte, and include a lanthanum manganate cathode and a nickel-zirconia anode. This is a promising option for high-powered applications, such as industrial uses or central electricity generating stations. Efficiency is about 60 percent with outputs of 100kW