MGT8033: Leading Organisational Change

1. MGT8033: Leading Organisational Change material comes from Cummings & Worley (2009), Chapter 21: The Organisation Learning Intervention

2. Lecture Overview • What is organisational learning? • What are the benefits for businesses that engage in org. learning? • What are mental models and how do they relate to org. learning? • Focus on the learning processes • Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning • Uncovering mental models • Org. learning – steps in intervention

3. Organisational Learning (OL) context • Alvin Toffler suggested … warned of impending upheaval, most managers still pursue business as usual. Yet, business as usual is dangerous in an environment that has become, for all practical purposes, permanently convulsive (in Scott & Jaffe 2010, p.5). • Various OL interventions target org. structures and social processes (both can limit or enhance knowledge/info. exchange) • This ongoing, collective learning means greater capacity to gather and share knowledge, problem-solve, and quicker capacity for action.

4. OrganisationalLearning and the benefits for businesses ... • Org. Learning is treated here as an intervention • Aims at helping the organisation to develop and use knowledge to change/improve itself • Collective learning features (learning occurs and knowledge is spread across the organisation). Some believe org. learning is the aggregate of the individual learning that occurs day-by-day • However, the interest is in how all this individual learning assists in organisation performance.

5. Organisational Learning – Key Characteristics • Structure: which enables and emphasises teamwork, networking and other processes that encourage info. sharing and greater involvement • Information systems: enabling easy & fast acquisition, processing, sharing of often complex info. for the purposes of gaining competitive advantage • HR Practices: designed to enable and reward knowledge development and skills, and the sharing thereof • Org. Culture: cultures that promote info-sharing, openness and experimentation (and risking failure which infers learning occurs from making mistakes) • Leadership: sets examples for members … viz. openness, trust, reflection - critical to effective learning.

6. Organisational Learning and the benefits for businesses ... • Cummings & Worley argue that individual learning may not necessarily assist organisational learning. (e.g. the Examiner may learn how to inspire oncampus students to participate eagerly in class sessions, but if this info. is not shared with colleagues, there is no organisational learning). • Conversely, organisations can learn collectively ( ‘the system’ expects USQ staff will work with ICE, Moodle, EASE & other software) but some individuals do not. • This reflects that OL stays in the organisation though members may change (see Cummings & Worley 2009, 541).

7. Organisational Learning and the benefits for businesses ... • The fundamental premise is that collective learning may be the only enduring source of competitive advantage • Ongoing learning gives the organisation greater ability to gather and share knowledge. In the long run this can give the entity greater acceptance of change and greater resilience when things are uncertain. • Note how org. performance is implicated (Fig. 21.2 Cummings & Worley 2009, 541)

8. The notion of mental models • Mental models = theories in use • Org. members construct a view of the organisation as they interact with other work colleagues, and learn how the organisation functions. • These views are held by individual members, which infers there could be some variation. • These cognitive maps help the person to make sense of his/her work surroundings, and help to make him/her more organised or comfortable in the workplace. • The person’s mental model is (continually) tested and modified.

9. The notion of mental models • Mental models help the person in decision-making, in work behaviour, and generally carrying out their work. • The problem arises when individual mental models are errant or out of step with reality. • The above is expected and usual ... indeed Cummings & Worley (2009, p. 544) argue that most learning in organisations is ineffective. • This ineffective learning is Model I Learning (a set of defensive norms that can impede learning, e.g. competition and rivalry).

10. The notion of mental models • Model I Learning limits the flow of information between and among org. members. That is, true organisational learning will not happen in this scenario • Mental models/assumptions in the above scenario are not tested • Cummings & Worley (2009, p544 +) overview interventions that help organisation members change from Model 1 learning to Model II Learning • Model II Learning is based on values including free & informed choice, and is reflected in less obstructive behaviours, openness to feedback and collaboration

11. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2EIx9rBy78&feature=related • Short clip on mental models – an explanation

12. Organisational learning processes • Organisation Learning Processes: 4 interrelated learning activities. These activities have a logical order, viz. • Discovery • Invention • Production • Generalisation • Discovery refers to the realisation that a gap or error exists somewhere. In a business or family situation this might mean the discovery that no-one is attending to important maintenance (e.g. Lawnmower or important software)

13. Organisational learning processes • Invention is when steps are taken to reduce the gap or error. In our scenario, this could mean allocating responsibility for maintenance (e.g. of the lawnmower) to a family member. • Production refers to the operation of the above remedy. This might include setting out monthly checks on oil levels, regular removal and cleaning of the air filter etc. • Generalisation includes making conclusions about the remedy and extending that knowledge to other relevant situations (e.g similar maintenance checks are also necessary for other household and garden appliances)

14. Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning Single –loop learning • ...or adaptive learning is associated with Model I Learning. • It is the usual form of learning in an organisation (finding & correcting errors in policy, practice and behaviour). As noted earlier, Model I Learning is when existing theories in use (mental models) are reinforced. • Learning occurs, but mostly in increments or gradual improvements • Doesn’t change the status quo

15. Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning Double-loop learning • Also known as generative learning and associated with Model II Learning. • It is really a re-examination of the way things are being done and why. • Challenges and changes the prevailing assumptions (mental models) of org. members and therefore changes the status quo. • This type of learning is more likely to deliver substantial (radical or transformational) change. e.g. All examiners allocate marks to the correct encoding of e-assignment files and the practice becomes faculty or USQ policy. Turnitin and other software mandated by the USQ similarly place the onus on the student to guarantee the integrity of their work

16. Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning Triple-loop learning • Perhaps the more difficult to understand (and achieve in an organisation) • Also known as deuterolearning – learning how to learn (something we do very poorly in schools) • The learning is aimed at the learning process itself, including both single-loop & double-loop learning. In the USQ context, an example to illustrate might be a major review of the promotion of research activities. Are these research activities and subsequent outcomes enabling learning throughout the USQ?

17. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nn3NqvStekY • Neat summary of single, double and triple-loop learning

18. Methods for uncovering individual mental models i. Dialogue Approach • The aim is to uncover mental models which influence the person’s behaviour and organising work activities • Org. members disclose via discussion how they go about decision-making, problem-solving etc. • The dialogue aims to identify some of the main behaviour influences, and to surface any faulty assumptions that might impede individual, group and/or organisation performance. • Ways of thinking and acting are the main targets. Honesty in responses is required

19. Methods for uncovering individual mental models ii. Action Map • Members are asked about recurrent problems in their organisation, why they occur, what actions are taken to remedy them, and the outcomes of these remedial actions. • Methodology is different: the objective is same - uncover the values that underpin behaviour. • With the above information, the idea is then to get the person to assess whether their existing values, beliefs, and assumptions might be impeding learning and performance.

20. Methods for uncovering individual mental models iii. Left-hand, right-hand column • The person selects a work situation where interaction with others produced an undesirable or ineffective outcome. The script (story line) is written on the right of a page. On the left side, the person enters what he/she was really thinking but not saying at each point. • The effectiveness of this approach is dependent on the person seeing and understanding how their (hidden) assumptions/theories in use, can influence their behaviour and decision-making (e.g. the making of faulty decisions).

21. Methods for uncovering individual mental models iv. Ladder of Inference (see Cummings & Worley 2009 p. 546 for diagrammatic view) • Shows normal progression from initial observation to eventual action as a result of that observation. • Can be used to help the person to see and understand reasons behind their actions, and encourage review (and revision of theories in use). • Shows how conclusions drawn from limited observation and experience can produce poor outcomes.

22. 3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ... • The information is provided in Cummings & Worley 2009 p. 544+ • The method reflects the 4 activities inherent in the Organisation Learning Processes, as identified earlier in this lecture (discovery-invention-production-generalisation). • Discovery refers to the uncovering of theories in use/mental models. There are practical ways of going about this task (e.g. inquire about how members problem-solve and make decisions). • Other methods are described (including use of an action map, the left-hand, right-hand column approach, and the ladder of inference) See previous slide

23. 3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ... • Invention & production involve members seeing the limitations of their pre-existing theories in use (mental models) • This can be confronting and difficult for some, especially those who feel their successes are tied to their assumptions • Consultants assist members in developing new mental models. For example, your work unit is not limited by poor middle management, but rather there are budget constraints (justifiable) imposed from higher management, which limit options. • Note: valid information is central to this methodology.

24. 3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ... • It’s important to encourage members to divulge info. about their habitual behaviours and decision-making and how this might impede the creation of new mental models/theories in use. • The point is made that open discussion about learning methods and behaviours often results in acceptance that they can indeed be changed. • You might give some thought to the types of workplaces in your experience, where this type of approach would likely be i. accepted and ii. resisted.

25. 3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ... • Note Cummings & Worley’s (2009, p. 547) reference to systems thinking. True org. learning is unlikely unless members see/understand how the work operation functions. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhbhaN3IGP4&feature=related • Indeed, deficiencies here can fuel less-than effective decision-making, as decisions are made without thought of downstream impacts. • But the person is also encouraged to see how he/she is part of the system (we typically see ourselves as separate from workplace problems/issues) and therefore sometimes part of the problem.

26. 3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ... • Monitoring and improving learning equates to the 4th action – generalising and revising how learning occurs • As Cummings & Worley (2009, p. 547) indicate, organisational structures and processes can impede or enable organisational learning, and remedial work may be required here • Learning at this point is applied to other organisational contexts or situations, and trialling and fine-tuning would be expected. Openness and honesty about new learning should be encouraged.

27. How effective is your learning? • Which item from the below set best describes ‘mental models’ as it is used in relation to org. learning? • Persons who choose modelling careers but they are not very bright/intelligent • Types of workplace strategies designed to bring about real learning • The files that org. members carry around in their heads which enable them to make sense of how things operate • A type of forecasting used by industrial psychologists to anticipate members’ reaction to substantial org. change

28. How effective is your learning? 2.Organisation learning lives on within the organisation even when members leave, mainly because … • Members cannot learn outside the organisation • Learning becomes second nature or embedded in the organisation’s systems and structures • Members are not allowed to take the learning with them when they exit • Learning is like a parasite – it doesn’t leave the host

29. How effective is your learning? 3. The most usual type of learning in an organisation is which of the below? • How to avoid work • unlearning • Learning how to learn • Single-loop or adaptive learning

30. How effective is your learning? 4. Learning processes are described and summarised by Cumming & Worley (2009). One of the 4 items does not belong in the set. • Institutionalisation • Invention • Discovery • Generalisation

31. How effective is your learning? 5. In many organisations, norms and values have the effect of standardising procedures, providing order and control, and also reinforcing defensive behaviours. Which type of learning is described here? • Rote learning • Single-loop or adaptive learning • Double-loop or generative learning • Triple-loop or deuterolearning