Chapter 6

1. Chapter 6 Groups & Organizations 1

2. Subjects Discussed Types of Groups Social Influence in Groups Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies Diversity: Race, Gender, and Class Organizations Functional, Conflict, and Symbolic Interaction: Theoretical Perspectives 2

3. Group A group is two or more individuals who interact, share goals and norms, and have a subjective awareness as �we.� Sociologists study groups from both a macro and a micro level of analysis and they differentiate between groups based on such chacteristics as: size closeness of members duration the group stays together purpose and organizational structure 3

4. Categories Recall from Chapter 1, social categories are a group, yet the people in the group do not necessarily know each other. They engage in similar behavior rather than meeting or hanging out together. Examples: Truck drivers Teenagers People over 75 years old 4

5. Dyads & Triads A dyad is a two person group (stable group). A triad is a three person group (unstable group). George Simmel (1902) discovered the group size effect; he observed how group size influences the behavior of the participants. Tension often builds when a third person is introduced into a two people group, and the groups may splinter into 2 + 1. 5

6. Primary Groups Primary groups are social collectives or membership groups consisting of intimate, face-to-face interaction, relatively long-lasting relationships, and serves members expressive (emotional) needs. These groups have a powerful influence on their members and like the family, help shape the individual�s personality and self-identity. Family and peers such as street gangs, classmates, and prisoners exemplify primary groups. 6 Find a photo of a street gang and insert itFind a photo of a street gang and insert it

7. Secondary Groups Secondary groups are social collectives or membership groups that are larger in size than primary groups, less intimate, and less long lasting in duration. These groups are usually less significant in the emotional lives of the people and serve their instrumental (task-oriented) needs. In catastrophic situations, such as a flood or the destruction of the World Trade Center, secondary groups often take on the characteristics of a primary group. 7

8. A Primary Group 8

9. Reference Groups Reference groups are groups which you identify with in the form of a generalized role model as they provide standards for evaluating your values, attitudes, and behaviors; you may or may not belong to this group. These groups strongly influence one�s aspirations, self-evaluation, and self-esteem. Examples include: major league sports teams, popular bands and/or classical musicians and super models. Reference groups can provide both positive and negative influences. 9

10. In & Out Groups W.I. Thomas, early sociologist (1903) distinguished between these two types of groups. In-Groups are social collectives or membership groups which you belong to. It provides a sense of identity as �us.� Out-groups are complementary collectives which are referred to as �them�; you are not a member of that group. Examples include: fraternities, sports teams, gangs, and racial groups. 10

11. Discussion Topics Think of an instance when you classified yourself as part of a group. Did you think of those in similar but different groups (out groups), as less than you or less than those in your group? 11 Instructor: break class into teams and have them discuss this among themselves. They can chose the most interesting one to reveal to the entire class (maintain student�s anonymity). Introduce the concept of attrition error.Instructor: break class into teams and have them discuss this among themselves. They can chose the most interesting one to reveal to the entire class (maintain student�s anonymity). Introduce the concept of attrition error.

12. Attrition Error �All else being assumed equal, we tend to perceive people in our in-group positively and those in out-groups negatively regardless of their actual personal characteristics�. -Andrew M. Pettigrew If a White police officer shoots a Black or Latino, a White individual (given no additional information) is likely to assume that the victim instigated the shooting and �deserved� to be shot. 12

13. Quiz Question Select the incorrect answer: an in-group is the same as either a secondary or a primary group a football team is a dyad; is a two person group, small, intimate, and the relationships are long lasting reference groups strongly influence our goals, aspirations, self-esteem, and how we evaluate ourselves family and peers are examples of primary groups 13 Answer = bAnswer = b

14. Social Networks Social Networks are a set of links between individuals, groups, or other social units such as bureaucratic organizations or entire nations. We are more closely linked to some networks than to others, yet even the ones to which we are weakly tied connect us to other networks of people. Networks help us achieve many of our objectives; e.g., when someone in your uncle�s country club helped you get your high-paying executive job. 14

15. Social Influence in Groups Social groups exert tremendous influence on our behavior and our identity. Even when we overtly deny the connection, the influence still exists. The not-me syndrome, was introduced by social psychologist Philip Zimbardo. This describes the dramatic gulf between what people think they will do and what they actually do; �they conform, but not me.� 15

16. Group Think, Risky Shift & Deindividualism Groupthink is group decision making that is commonly associated with unintended and disastrous consequences. Risky shift is when people in a group are likely to make riskier decisions than if they are alone. Deindividualism is doing together what we would not do alone; group size and physical anonymity influence this behavior. 16

17. Formal Organizations & Bureaucracies A formal organization is a large secondary group, highly organized to accomplish a complex task or tasks, and to achieve goals efficiently. Activities are regulated and defined in advance. Conformity is expected and formally enforced. Examples: schools, churches, political parties, and governments Most people living in contemporary society belong to multiple formal organizations. 17

18. Three Types of Organizations Sociologists, Peter Blau, W. Richard Scott and Amitau Etzione (1974-1975) classified formal organizations into three categories based on their type of membership affiliation. Normative Organizations Coercive organizations Utilitarian Organization 18

19. 19 Normative organizations are voluntary organizations that people join because the participants share the like values and moral standards; the group activities are worthwhile. Ex: PTA, choirs, bull-fighting clubs, monasteries Coercive organizations are total institutions, groups characterized by membership that is largely involuntary. Ex: Prisons and detention centers Utilitarian groups are large organizations, either for-profit or nonprofit, that individuals join for specific purposes, such as monetary reward. Ex: Microsoft, General Motors, The Bar association

20. Bureaucracy Bureaucracies are large formal complex organizations based on the principle of rationality and efficiency. Max Weber (1947/1925) was the first theorist to study this form of social organization. Bureaucracies differ from mom-and-pop type small businesses They are large in size, complex, impersonal, and operate on the principle of rationality. In their ideal type form they exhibit a set of six distinguishing characteristics. 20

21. Characteristics of Bureaucracies Division of labor and specialization Hierarchy of authority Rules and regulations Impersonal relationships Career ladder (technical expertise) Efficiency 21

22. Discussion Questions Explain what each characteristic of bureaucracy represents and give examples of each (from your personal experience is best). Identify a formal organization to which you belong and see if it meets the six characteristics identified by Max Weber. 22

23. Bureaucracy�s Other Face Though bureaucracies are formal organizational structures, they also have an informal side. This informal aspect is essential for the system to operate, but it is also dysfunctional. For example: the boss forgets to sign paychecks on Friday, so he calls his secretary, who calls her friend in payroll; this person from payroll goes in to the office on Saturday and opens the safe for the boss. None of the officials knew of this transaction. The secretary and payroll person get small bonuses for doing extra work. 23

24. Informal Bureaucratic Structure The informal structure develops over time in response to the systems� impersonalization and complexity. Networks are formed, friendships are made, and a powerful grapevine of information is in constant motion. Secretaries and many administrators have more power and authority than listed in their job descriptions. 24

25. Problems of Bureaucracies Sociologists have long recognized the common problems found in bureaucratic organizations. Anderson and Taylor discuss the following: Ritualism Alienation Group think Risky shift 25 Instructor: next slide shows the NASA Challenger explosion.Instructor: next slide shows the NASA Challenger explosion.

26. Challenger�s Lift-off This resulted from ritualistic behavior of NASA staff. 26

27. McDonaldization of Society George Ritzer, contemporary sociologist (2007), discussed the McDonaldization of society. He demonstrated that modern society, both in the U.S. and abroad, has expanded on Weber�s rational and efficient model by adopting McDonald�s prototype of the fast food restaurant business strategy. This way of doing business is visible everywhere: in the world of leisure and entertainment, shopping, health care clinics, drive-up banks, pharmacies, politics, and even education. 27

28. McDonald�s Structure Similar to Weber�s ideal type bureaucratic model, Ritzer identified the following four dimensions of the McDonald Model: Efficiency Calculability Predictability Control This operating system clearly carries with it the faster distribution of goods and services to a large and ever increasing demand for product. 28

29. Negative Side of McDonald�s System Increasing amounts of predictability and control occur as a function of mechanizing operations and of minimize reliance on creative employees wherever possible. The price we pay for this efficiency is: Dehumanization of the employees Vacation and sick leave benefits provided to only managers and owners A cookie cutter reality with limited selection of goods 29

30. Quiz Question The concept of bureaucracy was first studied by: Emile Durkheim Peter Blau George Simmel George Ritzer none of the above 30 Answer = dAnswer = d

31. Quiz Question Which of the following is incorrect about the McDonaldization of society? was a natural evolution of Weber�s bureaucratic model has some of the same weakness as the bureaucratic model is even more impersonalized than a formal bureaucracy is a primary group 31 Answer = aAnswer = a

32. Diversity: Race & Gender, and Organizations Just as there is discrimination of people based on race, gender, and class within society, this same pattern appears in formal organizations. Women and minorities are discriminated against in the workplace even though anti-discrimination laws exist. There are fewer females than males in top executive positions. This is also true for racial and ethnic minority groups. 32

33. Board Meeting 33

34. Discrimination in the Workplace Women and minorities usually occupy lower positions in the organization. A woman is less likely to receive promotions than a White man with the same education, and sometimes even less education. Many minorities are now equal to Whites in graduate level education, yet White men are generally more likely to get promoted. Even though this has improved, studies suggest that racism still thrives bureaucracies. 34

35. Diversity: Social Class in Organizations Class stereotypes also influence hiring practices in organizations. Personnel officers look for people with �certain demeanors,� those who present themselves as middle-class or upper middle-class. As long as hierarchical inequities exist in society, they will also appear in our organizations. 35

36. Theoretical Perspectives The major sociological perspectives of functionalism, conflict, and symbolic interaction can help us understand formal organizations. 36

37. Functionalist Perspective Max Weber spoke of eufunctions (positive functions) of bureaucracy as contributing to the overall stability of society. He listed them as efficiency, control, impersonal relations, and chances for career advancement. Weber also noted dysfunctions including: the informal network, impersonalization, alienation, disunity, and less efficiency within the organization. 37

38. Conflict Perspective The conflict perspective focuses on the ways that bureaucracy is layered or stratified, how this encourages conflict among the individuals within it, and also how it lessens the smooth efficient running of the organization. Conflict is found between: superior and subordinate racial and ethnic groups men and women people of different social class backgrounds 38

39. Symbolic Interaction Perspective Contemporary symbolic interaction theorists examine how the self is developed in an organization and/or how it influences the organizations functions and dysfunctions. In 1990, Chris Argyris proposed that the self gets actualized within the organization with increased involved within it. In 1981, UCLA professor William Ouchi argued that interaction within the organization can reduce organizational dysfunction. 39