Chapter Three

1. Chapter Three Clinical Research, Assessment, and Diagnosis in Abnormal Psychology

2. Clinical Research, Assessment, and Diagnosis in Abnormal Psychology • Psychopathology: • Study of mental or behavioral disorders • Etiology: • Cause or origin of a disorder

3. The Scientific Method in Clinical Research • Replication: • Results repeated in multiple studies to reduce the chance of findings due to experimenter bias, methodological flaws, or sampling errors • Scientific method: • Provides systematic collection of data, controlled observation, and the testing of hypotheses • Hypothesis: • Conjectural statement that usually describes a relationship between two variables

4. The Case Study • Case study: • Intensive study of one individual that relies on clinical data, such as observations, psychological tests, and historical and biographical information • Provides detailed information about development and psychopathology in a specific individual • Helps to develop a strong therapeutic relationship

5. The Case Study (cont’d.) • Limitations: • Findings cannot be generalized to others • Data reflects theoretical perspective or bias of investigator • Cannot be used to demonstrate cause and effect relationships

6. Correlational Studies • Statistical analysis preformed to determine the relationship between variables • Positive correlation: • Increase in one variable accompanied by increase in the other • Negative correlation: • Increase in one variable accompanied by decrease in the other

7. Correlational Studies (cont’d.) Figure 3-1 Possible Correlation Between Two Variables The more closely the data points approximate a straight line, the greater the magnitude of the correlation coefficient r. The slope of the regression line rising from left to right in example (a) indicates a perfect positive correlation between two variables, whereas example (b) reveals a perfect negative correlation. Example (c) shows a lower positive correlation. Example (d shows no correlation whatsoever.

8. Correlational Studies (cont’d.) • Allow for the study of variable that cannot be controlled • Correlations indicate the degree to which two variables are related, not the reason for the relationship • Cannot determine cause and effect • Factors may be influenced by an additional variable

9. Experiments • Experiment: • Perhaps best tool for testing cause and effect relationships because variables can be manipulated • In its simplest form, an experiment involves: • Experimental hypothesis • Independent variable • Dependent variable

10. Experiments (cont’d.) • Experimental hypothesis: • Prediction concerning how an independent variable will affect dependent variable • Independent variable: • (Possible cause) experimenter manipulates to determine effect on dependent variable • Dependent variable: • Expected to change when an independent variable is manipulated

11. Experiments (cont’d.) • Experimental group: • Subjected to independent variable • Subjective: taking place in person’s own mind • Control group: • Similar in every way to experimental group except for exposure to independent variable • Placebo control group: • Induces expectancy without actual treatment (no manipulation at all)

12. Experiments (cont’d.) • Additional controls in clinical research: • Blind design: • Those helping with the study are not aware of research • Reduces impact of experimenter expectations • Double-blind design: • Neither participants nor experimenters are aware of experimental conditions • Reduces impact of experimenter and participant expectations • Researchers attempt to increase degree of blindness and decrease expectancy effects

13. Experiments (cont’d.) • Shortcomings: • Effectiveness of blind designs depends on participants being truly “blind” • Some variables cannot be manipulated • Questions regarding generalizability of results

14. Analogue Studies • Replicate or simulate real-life situations under controlled conditions • Used when not possible to control all variables in real-life situations • Advantage: allows study of phenomenon using experimental designs that are not possible with correlation studies

15. Field Studies • Behaviors and events are observed and recorded in their natural environment • Sometimes used to examine catastrophic events or personal crises • Offer a more realistic investigative environment

16. Field Studies (cont’d.) • Limitations: • Cannot be used to determine cause and effect relationships • Many factors affecting real-life situations makes it impossible to control and distinguish all possible variables (difficult to interpret) • Observer can never be sure their presence did not influence interactions they observed

17. Biological Research Strategies • Genetics and epigenetics: • Focus on influence of specific genes in development of psychopathology • Epigenetics: • Shedding light on how the environment influences or programs gene expression • Genetic linkage studies: • Attempts to determine whether a disorder follows a genetic pattern

18. Biological Research Strategies (cont’d.) • Endophenotypes: • Measurable characteristics (neurochemical, cognitive, etc.) that can give clues regarding specific genes involved in a disorder • Characteristics must be heritable • Seen in family members who do not have the disorder • Occur more frequently in affected families than in the general population

19. Biological Research Strategies (cont’d.) • Epidemiological survey research: • Study of the rate and distribution of mental disorders in the population • Prevalence: • Percentage of individuals in targeted population with a particular disorder during a specific period of time • Incidence: • Number of new cases of a disorder that appear in an identified population within a specific period of time • Important in analyzing possible causal factors

20. Assessment of Abnormal Behavior • Therapists collect and organize information about a person’s current condition and past history to better understand symptoms and mental state • Psychodiagnosis: • Description of an individual's psychological state and inferences about possible causes of distress

21. Reliability and Validity • Reliability: • Degree to which a procedure yields the same results repeatedly under the same circumstances • Test-retest reliability: • Same results when given at two different points in time • Internal consistency: • Various parts of measure yield similar or consistent results • Inter-rater reliability: • Consistency of responses when different raters administer measure

22. Reliability and Validity (cont’d.) • Validity: • Degree to which an instrument measures what it was developed to measure • Predictive validity: • Is measure able to predict how a person will behave, respond, or perform • Construct validity: • Is measure related to phenomena related to measure

23. Reliability and Validity (cont’d.) • Standardization: • Crucial to reliability and validity of tests • Administration of all testing requires that common rules and procedures are followed • Requires a comparison group to which an individual’s test performance can be compared

24. Assessing Abnormal Behavior • Assessment: • Process of gathering information and drawing conclusions about an individual’s traits, skills, abilities, emotional functioning, and psychological problems of an individual • Principal means of assessment: • Observations • Interviews • Psychological tests and inventories • Neurological tests

25. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Observations: • Controlled (analogue) observations: • Made in laboratory, clinic, or other contrived setting • Naturalistic observations: • Made in natural setting (schoolroom, office, hospital ward, home) • Can be highly structured and specific or less formal • Observe appearance and behavior

26. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Interviews: • Observe client and collect data about the person’s life history, current situation, and personality • Analyze: • Verbal behavior • Nonverbal behavior • Content • Process of communication

27. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Interviews: • Vary in degree of structure and formality with which they are conducted • Mental status examination: • Evaluate individual’s cognitive, psychological, and behavioral functioning • Useful diagnostic tool • Fallible and subjective

28. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Psychological tests and inventories: • Standardized instruments used to assess: • Personality • Maladaptive behavior • Social skills • Intellectual abilities • Vocational interests • Cognitive impairment

29. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Projective personality tests: • Test taker is presented with ambiguous stimuli and is asked to respond to them in some way • Rorschach Technique • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) • Sentence-completion test • Draw-a-person test • Limited support for interpretations of TAT, Rorschach, and draw-a-person test • Questionable cultural relevance

30. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Self-report inventories: • Test taker answers specific written questions or selects specific responses from a list of alternatives • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI and MMPI-2) • Most widely used • Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

31. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) Figure 3-2 The 10 MMPI-2 Clinical Scales and Some MMPI-2 Items Shown here are the MMPI-2 clinical scales and a few of the items that appear on them. As an example, answering “no” or “false” (rather than “yes” or “true”) to the item “I have a good appetite” would result in a higher scale score for hypochondriasis, depression, and hysteria. Source: Adapted from Dahlstrom & Welsch, (1965). These items from the original MMPI remain unchanged in the MMPI-2.

32. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Limitations of self-report inventories: • Fixed number of choices hinder accurate presentation • Unique response sets may distort results • Interpretations of responses may be inaccurate if culture context is not addressed • Cultural factors may shape way a trait or characteristic is viewed

33. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Intelligence tests: • Obtain intelligence quotient (IQ), or estimate of current level of cognitive functioning • Wechsler scales • Stanford-Binet scales

34. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) Table 3-2 Items Similar to Those for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV

35. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Criticisms of intelligence tests: • Popularized as measuring innate intelligence, but actually reflect cultural and social factors • Predictive validity • Inadequacies of current conceptions of IQ tests • Misses multidimensional attributes of intelligence

36. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) ABC Video: Measure of IQ Can IQ tests accurately measure how smart you are or determine your future success? The theory of multiple intelligence may explain why traditional IQ tests may not always be an accurate measure of intelligence.

37. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Tests for cognitive impairment: • Detect and assess cognitive impairment • Bender-Gestalt Test • Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery • Are widely used and have been found to be effective and valid in evaluating cognitive impairment due to brain damage

38. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) Figure 3-4 The Nine Bender Designs The figures presented to participants are shown on the left. The distorted figures drawn by an individual with suspected brain damage are shown on the right. Source: L. Bender, (1938)

39. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) • Neurological tests: • Electroencephalograph (EEG) • Computerized axial tomography (CT) scan • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) • Positron emission tomography (PET) scan • Increase diagnostic accuracy and understanding when coupled with psychological tests

40. Assessing Abnormal Behavior (cont’d.) ABC Video: MRI as a Lie Detector Learn about the experimental use of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to map activity in the region of the brain used for deception.

41. Diagnosis and Classification of Abnormal Behavior • Classification system: • Provides distinct categories, indicators, and diagnostic names for particular patterns of behavior, thought processes, and emotional disturbances • Means of diagnosing disorders • Facilitates communication between mental health professionals • Forms foundation for research

42. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) • Widely used classification system • Lists all officially designated mental disorders and the characteristics or symptoms needed to confirm diagnosis • Traditionally a categorical system but most recently proposed as a dimensional model

43. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (cont’d.) • DSM-5: • Dimensional system: • Disorders lie on a continuum with “normality” at one end • Includes culturally focused interview • Comorbidity: • The co-occurrence of different disorders

44. Evaluation of the DSM Classification System • Positive aspects of DSM-5: • Moves away from a categorical system and towards a dimensional system • Developed to increase reliability and validity • Criticisms of DSM-5: • Lowers diagnostic thresholds • Inclusion of questionable “new disorders” • Cultural concerns • Focus on resilience: • Should strengths be assessed?