Preserving Nature

1. Preserving Nature Chapter 15 Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

2. Outline: • Parks and Nature Preserves • History • Problems • Size and Design • Wilderness Areas • Wildlife Refuges • Wetlands • Values • Destruction Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

3. PARKS AND NATURE PRESERVES • Origins and History • Historically, sacred groves were set aside for religious purposes, and grounds preserved for royalty. • Natural landscaping became popular in England during the eighteenth century. • Rejected symmetry for illusion of nature. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

4. Central Park • New York’s Central Park - Promoted in 1844 by newspaper editor William Cullen Bryant. • Provide healthful open space. • Designed by Frederick Law Olmstead. • Became known as father of landscape architecture. • Became original commissioner of Yosemite park in California. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

5. Yellowstone • First US area set aside to protect wild nature. • Authorized by President Abraham Lincoln. • Designated the first National Park by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872. • Also first National Park in the world. • Guarded by the army until the National Park Service was founded in 1916. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

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7. North American Parks • US national park system has grown to 280,000 km2 in 376 parks, monuments, historic sites and recreation areas. • 300 million visitors annually. • State and local parks occupy one-sixteenth as much area as national parks, yet have twice as many visitors. • Canada has 1,471 protected areas occupying about 150,000 km2. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

8. Park Problems • Many parks have become islands of nature surrounded and threatened by destructive land uses stemming from growing human populations crowding park boundaries. • While number of visitors has increased by one-third over the past decade, park budgets have decreased by twenty-five percent. • Estimated $6-8 billion for overdue repairs and restoration alone. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

9. Park Problems • Air Pollution • Acid Rain • Photochemical Smog • Mining and Oil Interests • Conversion of inholdings to incompatible uses. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

10. Wildlife • Historically, parks killed “bad” animals (wolves) in favor of “good” animals (elk). • Critics contend this policy unbalanced ecosystems, and created a false illusion of a natural system. • Park Service now maintains a policy of “natural regulation.” • Bison populations • Hunted off park property • Brucellosis and domestic cattle Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

11. New Directions • Several parks have removed facilities that conflict with natural values. • Proposals exist to close a number of parks to tourists altogether to protect ecosystems. • Airsheds, watersheds, and animal territories and migration routes often extend far beyond official boundaries. • Biogeographical area must be managed as a unit. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

12. New Parks and Monuments • One solution to congestion and overuse is to create new parks. • Grand Staircase-Escalante • Desert canyonlands in southern Utah. • Sits atop potentially trillions of dollars worth on natural resources. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

13. World Parks and Preserves • North and Central America have the largest fraction (10% of their land area - 33% of total protected area), designated for protection of any continent. • Former Soviet Union only has 3% of total. • Currently about 300 world biosphere reserves in 75 countries. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

14. Size and Design of Nature Preserves • Single Large or Several Small (SLOSS) • Ideally, a reserve should be large enough to support viable populations of endangered species, keep ecosystems intact, and isolate critical core areas from external forces. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

15. Size and Design of Nature Preserves • For some species with small territories, several small isolated refuges can support viable populations. • But cannot support species requiring large amounts of space. • Corridors of natural habitat to allow movement of species from one area to another can help maintain genetic exchange in fragmented areas. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

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17. Conservation and Economic Development • Tropics are suffering the greatest destruction and species loss in the world. • Ecotourism can be more beneficial to many countries over the long-term than extractive industries. • Wildlife watching and outdoor recreation can be a welcome source of income for underdeveloped countries. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

18. Indigenous Communities and Reserves • Areas chosen for nature preservation are often traditional lands of indigenous people. • 1986 UNESCO initiated its Man and Biosphere Program (MAB). • Encourages division of protected areas into zones with different purposes. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

19. WILDERNESS AREAS • A belief that wilderness is a source of wealth and the origin of strength, self-reliance, wisdom, and character, is deeply embedded in our culture. • 1964 - Wilderness Act defined wilderness: • “An area of undeveloped land affected primarily by the forces of nature, where man is a visitor who does not remain…” Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

20. Wilderness Areas • Most of areas meeting these standards are in the Western US and Alaska. • If the USFS uses a “pure” interpretation of wilderness that excludes all lands with any history of roads or development, only about one-fourth of its 23 million ha of roadless areas qualify for protection. • Prolonged battle has been waged over de-facto wilderness areas. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

21. Wilderness Areas • Arguments for preservation: • Refuge for endangered wildlife. • Solitude and primitive recreation. • Baseline for ecological research. • Area left in natural state. • For many people in developing countries, the idea of pristine wilderness is neither important or interesting. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

22. WILDLIFE REFUGES • 1901 - President Teddy Roosevelt established 51 national wildlife refuges. • Now 511 refuges encompassing 40 million ha representing every major biome in NA. • Refuge Management • Originally intended to be sanctuaries in which wildlife would be protected from hunting or other disturbances. • 1948 - Hunting allowed in refuges. • Duck Stamps - Wetland protection Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

23. Wildlife Refuges • Over the years, a number of other uses have been allowed to operate within wildlife refuge boundaries. • Oil and Gas Drilling • Cattle Grazing • Motor-boating, Camping • Refuges also face threats from external sources - expanding human populations. • Water Pollution Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

24. WETLANDS • Wetland - Shallow water body or an area where the ground is wet long enough to support plants specialized to grow under saturated soil conditions. • Wetland Values • Highly productive habitat for wildlife. • Occupy 5% of land in US, but at least one-third of all endangered species use wetlands. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

25. Wetland Values • Storage of flood waters. • Natural water purification systems. • Coastal Wetlands • Used by nearly two-thirds of all marine fish and shellfish. • Stabilize shorelines and help reduce flood damage. • Recreational Opportunities. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

26. Wetland Destruction • Throughout much of history, wetlands have been considered disagreeable and useless. • US Swamp Lands Act (1850) - Allowed individuals to purchase swamps and marshes for as little as 10 cents per acre. • Until recently, governments encouraged wetland drainage. • Consequently, sixty-six percent of original wetlands were destroyed. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

27. Wetlands Destruction Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

28. Wetland Destruction • Clean Water Act (1972) protected wetlands by requiring discharge permits. • Farm Bill (1985) blocked agricultural subsidies to farmers who drain or damage wetlands. • These laws are not necessarily effectively enforced. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

29. Floods and Flood Control • Floodplains - Low lands along riverbanks, lakes, and coastlines subjected to periodic inundation. • Valuable due to rich soil, level topography, convenient water supply, access to shipping, and recreational potential. • River control systems have protected communities, but tend to channelize rivers, speeding flow of water and exacerbating flooding downstream. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

30. Beaches, Barrier Islands, and Estuaries • Estuary - Bay or drowned valley where a river empties into the sea. • Mingling of fresh and saltwater brings in rich sediment - Very productive. • Where continental shelf is relatively shallow, river sediments form beaches, sandbars, and barrier islands parallel to shore. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

31. Beaches, Barrier Islands, and Estuaries • Construction can damage vegetation holding sand in place. • Cities and property owners often spend millions of dollars to protect beaches from erosion. • Coastal Barrier Resources Act (1982) prohibited federal support, including flood insurance for development of sensitive areas. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

32. Summary: • Parks and Nature Preserves • History • Problems • Size and Design • Wilderness Areas • Wildlife Refuges • Wetlands • Values • Destruction Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.

33. Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.