Critical Thinking Salvatore Belardo & Sanjay Goel

Critical ThinkingSalvatore Belardo & Sanjay Goel August 2005

Critical ThinkingSocrates From Socrates, we get great emphasis on argument and critical thinking. Socrates chose to make argument the main thinking tool. Within argument, there was to be critical thinking: Why do you say that? What do you mean by that? "To find yourself, think for yourself." -- Socrates

Critical ThinkingPlato From Plato we get the notion that there is the "truth" somewhere but that we have to search for it to find it. The way to search for the truth is to use critical thinking to attack what is untrue. “Knowledge is true opinion.”-- Plato

Critical ThinkingAristotle From Aristotle we get a type of logic, based on identity and non-identity, as well as on inclusion and exclusion. "It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it." -- Aristotle

Critical ThinkingBelardo “Critical Thinking is purposeful goal directed thinking. It is an art of thinking about what one is thinking about in order to make it more accurate, clear and defensible”

Foundations of Critical Thinking Lie in How the Mind Works?

How do you Think?Brain “The brain is the organ of destiny. It holds within its humming mechanism secrets that will determine the future of the human race.” -- Wilder Penfield (from The Second Career, 1963) • “The human brain, then, is the most complicated organization of matter that we know.” • – Isaac Asimov (from the foreword to The Three-Pound Universe by J. Hooper and D. Teresi, 1986)

Brain Historical • Aristotle believed that brain size wasrelatedto intelligence. • Broca believed that cranial volumereflectedintelligence, hence: • Women were inferior to men (smaller brain sizes) • Non-Europeans were inferior to Europeans • Broca’s work was superceded by the neuronal doctrine (Waldayer) • Neurons are the processing units of the brain. “The human brain is generally regarded as a complex web of adaptations built into the nervous system, even though no one knows how.” – Michael S. Gazzaniga (from The Mind’s Past, 1998)

NeuronsBrain & Intelligence There are billions of neurons in our brains, but what are neurons? Just cells. The brain has no knowledge until connections are made between neurons. All that we know, all that we are, comes from the way our neurons are connected. – Tim Berners-Lee (from Weaving The Web: the original design and ultimate destiny of the world wide web by its inventor, 1999) • Current models postulate that intelligence and complexity are the result of the properties of neurons and how they are connected. • Not only the number of neurons but physiological properties of neurons are also relevant: channels, cable properties, and the type of synapses.

The BrainAn electrochemical network “The adult human brain weights about 3 pounds and consists of about 100 billion nerve cells or neurons. These neurons are responsible for the transmission of information throughout the brain. The outer wrinkled mantle of the brain called the cerebral cortex contains about 30 billion of these neurons connected to each other by means of a million billion neuronal connections called synapses. The neurons communicate with each other via these connections.” “The human brain is an amazing piece of engineering that allows us to process billions of bits of information within a compact, powerful, continuously changing computer that we carry on our shoulders our entire lives” -- Nancy C. Andreasen

NeuronsElectrical Connectors “The brain evolves further than any other organ. Beginning as the simplest sort of connecting center for the nerves, it elaborates into a surpassingly complex structure, with many levels of activity, and untold trillions of possible circuits” – Wendell J.S. Krieg (Functional Neuroanatomy, 1942)

Neurons Synapses “The human brain is estimated to have about a hundred billion nerve cells, two million miles of axons, and a million billion synapses, making it the most complex structure, natural or artificial on earth” -- Tim Green, Stephen F. Heinemann and Jim F. Gusella (from a paper in Neuron, vol. 420, page 427, 1998)

IntelligencePlasticity • Neuroplasticity involves physiological changes throughout the body, including, neurons, glia, vascular cells • At different times in an individuals lifetime different plasticity mechanisms are more prevalent • In addition to genetic factors brain is shaped by the characteristics of the persons environment and actions • Plasticity is the lifelong ability of the brain to reorganize neural pathways based on new experiences. • In order to learn or memorize a fact there must be persistent functional changes in the brain that represent the new knowledge Source: http://comp.uark.edu/~todegar/PSYC2003/intelligence.html

IntelligencePlasticity • Synaptic pruning eliminates weaker synaptic contacts while stronger contacts are maintained and strengthened • Experience determines which connections will be maintained and which will be pruned • The connections that have been activated more frequently are kept • It was believed earlier that when people got older the brain lost its plasticity • New research has revealed that the brain never stops learning & adjusting • When a child is first born inputs from the sensory organs flood the child’s brain and instructs the pathways to connect • Over the first few years of life the brain changes rapidly • As neurons mature they send out multiple branches increasing the number of synaptic contacts and laying specific connections from neuron to neuron Source: http://comp.uark.edu/~todegar/PSYC2003/intelligence.html

LearningProcess “Whenever you read a book or have a conversation, the experience causes physical changes in your brain. It’s a little frightening to think that every time you walk away from an encounter, your brain has been altered, sometimes permanently.” - E. Roy John (Mechanisms of Memory, 1967) • Learning is a process by which we acquire new knowledge or skills through instruction & experience • Learning occurs by creation of neurons and associations between existing neurons. • If you stop learning your overall mental capacity and performance will decline. This is because of the weakening and eventual loss of brain networks • Over varying periods of time you’ll notice a gradual but steady decrease in your mental agility if you do not nourish and enhance these networks

AttentionCritical Thinking “Attention is the spotlight that our brains use to identify stimuli within the context of time and space to select what is relevant and to ignore what is irrelevant” • Attention is a Limited Mental Resource • Neurons fatigue in 3-5 min. of sustained activity • Recover, but become inefficient in a few cycles • Brain tunes off when only factual information is provided to it • Key to stay focused is to stimulate different parts of the brain • Critical thinking spreads neuronal load across the brain

Attention“The Cocktail Party Effect” • Differences between sight and hearing • Sight selection can be focused with eye movement • Hearing selection is more cognitive • In a classroom or any public situation (i.e. a cocktail party), it is important to filter out the important and non-important information. • Filtering or Selecting • Mental process of eliminating distractions or unwanted messages • In a classroom or any public situation (i.e. a cocktail party), it is important to filter out the non-important information.

Long-Term Memory Attention Sensory Memory Short-Term Working Memory Stimulus Information Response MemoryInformation Processing • We are our memories • It is the process by which we retain knowledge over time • Episodic Memory • Semantic Memory • Memory is established in multiple stages • Short Term • Long Term • Memory is not perfect Revised information processing model adapted from Neisser (1976). Source: Mark H. Ashcraft, (2002) Cognition “Memory is the most important function of the brain; without it life would be a blank. Our knowledge is all based on memory. Every thought, every action, our very conception of personal identity, is based on memory… Without memory, all experience would be useless.” -- Edridge-Green, 1900

MemoryThe Magical Number 7 • The limit of information that can be processed easily into short term memory is 7 plus or minus 2. • Problem • Large amounts of sensory information can be experienced • Large amounts of information can be stored long term • Transfer of information between sensor to long term memory imposes “severe limitations on the amount of information that we are able to receive, process and remember” “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information” -- George Miller. (1956)

MemoryImproving • Visualization • Form a picture in your mind's eye of the things you want to remember. • Bizarre images are easier to remember. • Use action, humor, exaggeration etc. to create bizarre images. • e.g. visualize large, man-eating plants growing out of your washing machine to remember watering plants • Story or Link Method • Link together items or ideas to be remembered in an unusual story. • Example: You need to get gas, go to the cleaners, and buy milk. • Link the items together in a story: gas spills on your clothes and you try to wash it off with milk. • You can learn new information more easily if you associate it with something you already know • Research indicates memory is facilitated if you use both sides of your brain. • Left side - logic, words, lists, numbers, sequences, analysis • Right side - rhythm, imagination, daydreaming, color, size, spatial awareness • Most memory problems are due to lack of attention. • Making a conscious decision to recall something is the first important step.

MemoryImproving • Recalling Dates • Associate the date to be recalled with a date you already remember. E.g.: the day before Halloween, a week after your birthday, 2 days after the Fourth of July, a month before Christmas, etc. • Dates can become prices ($18.99) or a time (12:15). • Rhyme or rhythm • Columbus sailed the ocean blue in 1492. • In treating shock: If the face is red, raise the head; if the face is pale, raise the tail. • Time of doctor appointment (2:00): I'm blue at two. • First Letter Cues • Acronyms - make a word out of the first letter of each item to be recalled. E.g.: HOMES spells the great lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior. • Acrostics - first letter of each item stands for a word in a phrase. E.g.: When parking your car remember: turn off lights, take keys, lock it, and note where you parked (lights, keys, lock, park). The acrostic could be Little Kids Like Pickles. • Chunking • For items: milk, eggs, cheese (dairy products)apples, oranges, bananas (fruits)lettuce, croutons, salad dressing (salad) • For numbers: 3417 Main can be recalled as 34 17 Main (2 numbers instead of 4).

MemoryImproving • Eliminate stress. • Get treatment if you are depressed. • Don't abuse drugs or alcohol. • Stay in touch with friends and loved ones for social and intellectual stimulation. • Learning New Material • Preview the material--table of contents, headings, and what you hope to learn • Break up material to be learned into smaller parts. • Recite: Re-tell the material to yourself as if explaining it to someone else. • Review: Go over the new material until it is learned. • Spaced review: Spread out studying and review over a period of days rather than trying to learn the material all at once. • General Suggestions • Keep your mind active with reading, crossword puzzles, hobbies, games, etc. • Exercise regularly to supply adequate oxygen to the brain.

Learning and Sleep “Sleep affords the opportunity, within certain limits, for the brain to act of itself, and dreams are the result” -- Edward Clarke (from Vision: A Study of False Sight, 1878) • Research has shown that: • Learning a new skill and then sleeping will lead to better performance3 • What is learned when awake is replayed and rehearsed when asleep2 • Quality of sleep matters2 • At least 6 hours of sleep improves performance2 • It is better to study and get a good night’s sleep before an exam than to cram the whole night! 1 http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct01/sleeponit.html 2http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/07/02/health/main514038.shtml

Left Brain & Right Brain

Brain Principles • Contralaterality • The brain is divided into two mirror-image halves (hemispheres) when viewed from above. • The receptive and control centers for one side of the body are located in the opposite hemisphere of the brain. • Hemispheric Specification • Each hemisphere specializes in different manners of processing information and maintains different abilities. • The percentage of each hemisphere used varies by individual. If your right brain works much faster than your left brain, you have lots of wonderful ideas but can't get them organized or articulate them well. On the other hand, if your left brain works faster than your right brain, you are very good at memorizing and organizing details but have trouble generating new ideas or articulating concepts.

BrainLeft vs. Right Source: http://painting.about.com/library/blpaint/blrightbraintable.htm

BrainLeft & Right Source: http://painting.about.com/library/blpaint/blrightbraintable.htm

BrainExercise “You know you’ve got to exercise your brain just like your muscles” -- Will Rogers “The more you use your brain, the more brain you will have to use” -- George A. Dorsey

LearningCan it be Enhanced? • One demonstrated way to increase cognitive skills is to use a collection of tools and techniques that can be classified under the rubric critical thinking • These tools were developed by philosophers and thinkers over the last three thousand years • Business leaders do not relate well to these tools • Key to increasing your mental abilities is to increase your cognitive skills. • Cognition refers to your ability to attend, identify and act. • It also refers to thoughts, moods, inclination, decisions, and actions • It includes alertness, concentration, speed, learning, memory, problem solving, creativity and mental endurance.

Critical Thinking • We propose to introduce a Rosetta Stone for Critical Thinking which will be more orthogonal to the managerial mindset Classical Critical Thinking Bloom’s Taxonomy Applied Critical Thinking • Syllogisms • Truth Table • Chain Arguments • Inductive Reasoning • Deductive Reasoning • Cognitive • Affective • Psychomotor • Experimentation • Reasoning • Communication

Critical ThinkingWhat is it? • Such information may be gathered from observation, experience, reasoning, or communication. Critical thinking has its basis in intellectual values that go beyond subject matter divisions and include: clarity, accuracy, precision, evidence, thoroughness and fairness. • Critical thinking is a mental process of analyzing or evaluating information, particularly statements or propositions that are offered as true. It is a process of reflecting upon the meaning of statements, examining the offered evidence and reasoning, and forming judgments about the facts.

Steps • Itemize opinions from all relevant sides of an issue and collect arguments supporting each. • Break the arguments into their constituent statements and draw out various additional implications from these statements. • Examine these statements and implications for internal contradictions. • Locate opposing claims between the various arguments and assign relative weights to opposing claims. • Increase the weighting when the claims have strong support especially distinct chains of reasoning or different sources, decrease the weighting when the claims have contradictions. • Adjust weighting depending on relevance of information to central issue. • Require sufficient support to justify any incredible claims; otherwise, ignore these claims when forming a judgment. • Assess the weight of the various claims.

Mind Maps Claims • Mind mapping an alleged panacea • Perfect memory • Geniuses (associated) • Trademarked Counter claims • Limited • Anticlimax • Hype Source: Wikipedia

Management Challenges • Not managing • Not communicating effectively • Failing to set clear goals and expectations • Ignoring problems until it’s too late • Forgetting to build a trusting work atmosphere

Improving Communication • Improving Communication • A:Anticipating What the Receiver Knows or Doesn’t Know • S:Sharing Similar Experiences • K:Knowing The Right Questions to Ask

Improving Communication The second condition (shared experiences)is met when both the sender and the receiver have had similar experiences. In such situations, a degree of conformity exists between the tacit knowledge of both the sender and the receiver. This helps ensure the efficient and effective transfer of knowledge (Belardo et al., 2004)

Improving Communication Knowledge Transfer Model

Knowledge Level Quality of Knowledge Improving CommunicationAssessing Explicit Knowledge

Improving Communication Tacit Knowledge Assessment

Improving CommunicationTacit Knowledge Assessment Success Staff are customer focused Our recruitment process Our recruitment criteria Experience Empathetic Qualifications

Improving Communication The first and third conditions, we contend, can only be satisfied when either or both parties employ critical thinking. Critical thinking involves logical thinking and reasoning including skills such as classification, sequencing, associative thinking, analogies, deductive and inductive reasoning, etc Critical thinking is goal directed thinking. It is the art of thinking about what one is thinking about in order to make it more clear, more accurate, and ultimately more defensible Critical thinking employs arcane techniques such as truth tables, syllogisms, chain arguments, etc. Critical thinking can be made accessible through the use of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Improving Communication Bloom’s Taxonomy • Cognitive Domain: deals with the development of ascending levels of intellectual abilities and skills. • Affective Domain: describes levels of the internalization process of the learners’ interests, attitudes, values, appreciations and behavior. • Motor Skills Domain: Deals with physical activity requiring coordination.

Improving CommunicationBloom’s Taxonomy:The Cognitive Domain • Knowledge • It is rote learning ranging from the recall of specific facts to knowledge of conventions and theories…a rich vocabulary • Comprehension • Encompasses meaningful integrated learning. At this level, the learner has made the material part of his/her own frame of reference…ones own words • Application • Application means that the person can employ the idea, theory, practice, etc. • Analysis • Analytical skills enable the individual to discern unstated assumptions • Synthesis • At this level the individual is able to adapt his/her knowledge to other uses • Evaluation • Making judgments about the value or worth of something

Improving Communication Bloom’s Taxonomy:The Cognitive Domain In Finance: Net Present Value • Knowledge: I have heard the term before. Isn’t that a method for ranking investment proposals. • Comprehension: The Net Present Value is equal to the present value of future returns, discounted at the marginal cost of capital, minus the present value of the cost of the investment. • Application : I used it recently to help make a decision concerning two investment proposals. • Analysis: The equation consists of several factors: the net cash flows, the marginal cost of capital, the initial cost of the project, and the project’s expected life. • Synthesis: I believe that this method can also be used as part of a method to determine the value of a firm’s intangible assets. • Evaluation: I know when to use NPV and when to use the IRR method

Improving Communication Explicit Knowledge Assessment Evaluation Judge Appraise Rate Value Revise Estimate Assess Select Critique Synthesis Compose Plan Design Propose Arrange Assemble Prepare Collect Create Set Up Organize Analysis Analyze Compare Diagram Experiment Differentiate Test Inspect Debate Question Relate Examine Distinguish Between Calculate Application Translate Interpret Apply Employ Use Dramatize Demonstrate Practice Illustrate Operate Sketch Comprehension Restate Discuss Describe Explain Tell Report Identify Locate Review recognize Vocabulary Know Define Record List Name Recall

Improving Communication Bloom’s Taxonomy Applied to The Case of TQM • Knowledge Level: • List or record terms related to TQM • List three functions of your job that relate to other departments in the organization • Define the various acronyms associated with TQM (e.g., SPC, CQI) • Comprehension Level: • Discuss the advantages of TQM with coworkers • Identify three departments that are customers of your department • Review the major objective achieved in each training session • In a role-play, tell what you have learned in this session to your immediate supervisor • Application Level: • Demonstrate how four of the analysis tools could be used to locate quality problems in one • activity of your work • Dramatize how you would facilitate a meeting to introduce concepts of TQM to your • department

Improving Communication Bloom’s Taxonomy Applied to The Case of TQM • Analysis Level: • Diagram a process flow chart of the activities for a task in your work • Differentiate those processes in your task environment that can be improved with TQM from • those where TQM cannot be applied • Examine the present departmental activities and determine which one currently use TQM • Synthesis Level: • Prepare an article for the company newsletter describing TQM training • Design a proposal for policy changes reflecting TQM to be presented to top executives • Collect and compile data from department activities that support implementation of TQM • Evaluation: • Critique a present training program and revise it to suit the needs of your organization • Estimate a budget that would be necessary to implement TQM changes for your department. • Rate the leadership in your department as to its readiness to implement TQM

Ensuring Trust The Importance of Trust in Ensuring Efficiency & Effectiveness Efficiency “Trust should be viewed as an important component of social capital because low trust cultures incur a higher cost of doing business than do high trust cultures. Low trust cultures are simply less efficient.” Francis Fukuyama: Trust:The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity Effectiveness “If everyone cheated, trust would not exist. Every party to every transaction would be suspicious of everyone else and in such a system, people would spend valuable time energy and resources on protection and retaliation. In such a system, there would be no incentive to take risks and innovate.” Magda Ratajski:Vital Speeches

Ensuring Trust All ethical systems are designed to ensure trust, and with trust, the cooperation and collaboration necessary to ensure prosperity and survival. • The Ten Commandments • The Bill of Rights • The Hippocratic Oath, etc.

Ensuring Trust An ethical system is a set of rules that helps guide behavior. Ethical systems exist along a continuum ranging from those that focus on the ends (teleological), and those that focus on the means (deontological). They differ on the basis of: • The extent to which they focus on the individual or on the broader society • The extent to which complete and accurate information is shared • The extent to which rules that guide behavior are universally practiced • The extent to which duty determines behavior These four elements can be described as: inclusiveness, truthtelling, consistency and discipline. These are then the values that help ensure that people share knowledge with their colleagues and build upon one another’s ideas.

Critical Thinking Salvatore Belardo & Sanjay Goel