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Ch.2 Intro. To Assembly Language Programming

Ch.2 Intro. To Assembly Language Programming. From Introduction to Embedded Systems: Interfacing to the Freescale 9s12 by Valvano, published by CENGAGE. 2.1 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers. Decimal numbers {0,1,2,…,7,8,9} A decimal number is a combination of digits multiplied by powers of 10

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Ch.2 Intro. To Assembly Language Programming

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  1. Ch.2 Intro. To Assembly Language Programming From Introduction to Embedded Systems: Interfacing to the Freescale 9s12 by Valvano, published by CENGAGE

  2. 2.1 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers • Decimal numbers • {0,1,2,…,7,8,9} • A decimal number is a combination of digits multiplied by powers of 10 • 1984 = (1)x103 + (9)x102 + 8 x101 + (4)x100 • Binary numbers • {0,1} • A binary number is a combination of binary digits multiplied by powers of 2. • 011010102 = %01101010 • 0x27+1x26+1x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+2x21+2x20 • = 0 +64 +32+0+8+2+0= 106

  3. 2.1 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers (cont.) • Hexadecimal numbers • {0,1,…9,A,B,C,D,E,F}, where A=10, …, F=15 • A hexadecimal number is a combination of the digits {0-F} multiplied by powers of 16 • 12AD16 = $12AD = 1x163 +2x162 +(10)x161 +(13)x160 = 4096 + 512 + 160 +13=4781 • Fractions—use negative powers. • Words=16 bits on the 9s12. • Bytes = 8 bits on the 9s12. • Nibble = 4 bits.

  4. Checkpoints • Checkpoint 2.1 What is the numerical value of %11111111? • Checkpoint 2.2 What is the numerical value of $FF? • Checkpoint 2.3 Convert the binary number %01000101 to hexadecimal. • Checkpoint 2.4 Convert the binary number %110010101011 to hexadecimal. • Checkpoint 2.5 Convert the hex number $40 to binary • Checkpoint 2.6 Convert the hex number $63F to binary. • Checkpoint 2.7 How many binary bits does it take to represent $123456?

  5. 2.2 Addresses, Registers, and Accessing Memory • Figure 2.3—memory model of simplified 9S12 computer (small boxes—8 bits) • Address—specifies the location from where to read data to where to write data. • Addresses—simple linear sequences—from $0000 to $FFFF. • $0240 points to an I/O port (Port T) • $3800 points to a location in RAM • $F004 points to a location in EEPROM

  6. Registers • Registers—high speed storage devices located in the processor. • Registers do not have addresses, but instead have names and numbers. • Register A (8 bits) • Program Counter (PC)—16 bits—contains the address of the instruction that is executing.

  7. Read/Write Operations • For this text (see page 30) • =[U] specifies an 8-bit read from address U. • ={U} specifies a 16-bit read from addresses U, U+1 (most significant byte first). • [U]= specifies an 8-bit write to address U. • {U}= specifies a 16-bit write to addresses U, U+1 (most significant byte first).

  8. Checkpoint • Checkpoint 2.8: What does [$0240] = RegA mean literally? What is the overall action?

  9. Registers of the 9S12 • Fig. 22.4 shows the six registers (page 30 of text). • Accumulator—typically used to hold and manipulate numbers—RegA and RegB (8 bits each or 16 bits when combined –RegD) • Index Registers —RegX and RegY –16 bits each—addresses and pointers. • Program Counter (PC)—points to the current instruction and is 16 bits. • Condition Code Register (CC or CCR)—8 separate bits—S, X, H, I, N, Z, V, C—Z is set of the result is zero after an operation.

  10. CLI • The I bit can be cleared using the CLI instruction during the debugging of a program. • More in Chapter 9.

  11. Checkpoint • Checkpoint 2.9 (page 31): Think about how you could use the “subtract” and the “branch on zero” instructions to test if two numbers are equal?

  12. Stack Pointer Register • The stack is temporary storage in RAM. • SP is a 16-bit register that points to the top of the stack. • Figure 2.5 illustrates the process of “pushing” on the stack (the SP is decremented and the data is written.) • To “pop” data, the data is read from the location specified by SP, then SP is incremented.

  13. Memory Maps • Table 2.2—9S12C32 • Table 2.3 9S12DPS12 • Table 2.3 9S12E128

  14. 2.3 Assembly Syntax • 2.3.1 Assembly Language Instructions • Load AccumulatorA : ldaa • Reads an 8-bit byte and places it into register A. • Assembly code fields • Label opcode operand comment • Here ldaa $3800 ; RegA= $3800

  15. Assembly Code and Machine Code • Assembly language instructions, assembly code, assembly source code • Machine instructions, machine code, and object code (can be loaded into EEPROM and executed.) • Example: • Assembly code: ldaa $3800 • Machine code: $B6, $38, $00 • An assembler converts the assembly language program into machine code.

  16. 2.3.2 Pseudo Operation Codes • Pseudo-op, pseudo operation code, and assembly directives are equivalent. • These are used by the assembler during the assembly process and are not executed as assembly code. • Example: • org $4000 means that the machine code will be loaded into EEPROM memory starting at location $4000.

  17. More Pseudo Codes • equate is used to define a symbol. • Reserve multiple bytes (rmb) is used to define uninitialized variables. • Form double byte (fdb) is used to form a 16 bit constant. The following two lines indicate where to start execution: • org $FFFE • fdb main

  18. Consider the following: org $8080 Ptr1 rmb 2 Data1 rmb 1 Ptr1 is found at $8080 and $8081. Checkpoint 2.10 Where in memory will the variable Data1 be located? Hint: it comes after Ptr1; it is not in $8080. Checkpoint

  19. 2.4 Simplified 9S12 Machine Language Execution • A simplified cycle-by-cycle analysis is done. • TExaS can simulate both the hardware devices and software action at the same time. • Table 2.5 (page 34) illustrates the difference between a real 9S12 and the TExaS bus cycle simulation.

  20. Components of the 9S12 • See Figure 2.6 (page 34). • Control Unit (CU) —controls the sequence of operations. • Instruction Register (IR) —contains the op code of the current instruction. • Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) —performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and, or, and shift. • Bus Interface Unit (BIU) —reads and writes data to the bus. • Effective Address Register (EAR) –contains data address for the current instruction –TExaS allows the EAR to be observed. • Bus—8 bits and 16 bits (R/W is the control). • Memory • I/O Ports

  21. Read and Write Cycles • Read Cycles • Instruction fetch —PC points to data to be placed in the IR. • Operand fetch — effective address is calculated. • Data fetch –the address is in the EAR, and data is placed in a register or sent to the ALU, • Stack pull -- data is “popped” from the stack. • Write Cycles • Data write (from a register or ALU to memory location stored in the EAR) • Stack push

  22. Phases of Execution (page 35 of text) • Phase 1: Opcode and Operand fetch • Phase 2: Decode instruction • Phase 3: Evaluate address • Phase 4: Data read • Phase 5: Free cycles • Phase 6: Data write

  23. Simple Address Modes • Inherent Addressing • Immediate Addressing • Direct (Page) Addressing—other computers call this zero page addressing. • Extended Addressing—other computers call this direct addressing. • Indexed Addressing • PC Relative Addressing

  24. Addressing Modes • 2.5.1 Inherent Addressing Mode • There is no operand field. • Example: clra (machine code $87) • Figure 2.7 The data for the instruction is implied—RegA is set to zero. • 2.5.2 Immediate Addressing Mode • The data is included in the machine code. • Example ldaa #36 (machine code $86 $24) • Figure 2.8—phase 1: fetch opcode; phase 2 fetch operand.

  25. Addressing Modes • 2.5.3 Direct (Page) Addressing • Uses an 8-bit address to access location from 0 to $00FF (some addresses are I/O ports) • Example: ldaa $32 (machine code: $96 $32) • Figure 2.9 –opcode is read; operand is read; value of Port K ($32) is $57; $57 is placed in register A. • 2.5.4 Extended Addressing • Uses a 16-bit address; allows access to all memory and I/O. • Example: ldaa $3800 (machine code: $B6 $38 $00 • Figure 2.10 --opcode is read; operand is read; rest of operand is read; address is calculated and data is moved into register A.

  26. Addressing Modes • 2.5.5 Indexed Addressing • Uses a 16-bit pointer in a register to access memory and I/O devices. • RegX and RegY can be used as the pointers. • Example: ldaa 0,x (machine code: $A6 $00) • Figure 2.11—opcode is fetched; operand is fetched; fetch using the EAR, the data in $3900. • 2.5.6 PC Relative Addressing • Used for the branch and branch to subroutine instructions. • Example: bra main (machine code $20 $F4) • Fig. 2.11—opcode is fetched; operand is fetched. • The operand field for PC relative addressing is an 8-bit value called rr. • rr = (destination address) – (location of instruction) – (size of the instruction).

  27. Checkpoints • Checkpoint 2.12: What is the difference between ldaa #36 and ldaa #$24? • Checkpoint 2.13: What is the difference between ldaa #32 and ldaa $32? • Checkpoint 2.14: Give the machine code for the assembly code that branches to itself, causing an infinite loop, loop braloop

  28. 2.6 The Assembly Language Development Process • An editor is used to create the source code. • An assembler is used to translate the source code to machine instructions. • The assembler also produces a listing file, which shows the addresses and object code that corresponds to each lin of the assembly code. • A loader is used to place the object code into memory, when a real microcontroller is used.

  29. 2.7 Memory Transfer Operations (page 41 of text) • Symbols used • w—signed 8-bit (-128 to + 127) or unsigned 8-bit (0-255) • n -- signed 8-bit • u – unsigned 8-bit • W -- signed 16 bit (-32787 to + 32767) or unsigned 16- bit (0 to 65535) • N -- signed 16-bit • U -- unsigned 16-bit

  30. Instructions for Memory Transfer(page 42) • Note that copies are made of the memory contents. • Instructions: • Load (memory contents are copied into a register.) • Move (copies of memory values are moved into other memory locations.) • Store (register contents are copied and moved into memory.)

  31. Checkpoints • Checkpoint 2.15: What is the difference between ldx #$0801 and ldx $0801? • Checkpoint 2.16: What is the difference between direct mode instruction ldx<$12 and the extended mode instruction ldx>$0012? • Checkpoint 2.17: Write assembly code that copies the 8-bit data from memory location $0810 to memory location $0820. • Checkpoint 2.18: Write assembly code that writes the binary %11000111 to Port T.

  32. 2.8 Subroutines • Subroutines are subprograms that may or may not return a value (text—page 43). • Program 2.1 (page 43) Subroutine Set • Command bsr is used (but jsr could also be used.) • Relative addressing is used with bsr and extended addressing is used with jsr. • At run time, the return address will be pushed on the stack, and then will be pulled when the subroutine is finished (instruction rts is used.) • Two global variables: Flag and Data • Fig. 2.13 illustrates the stack during execution.

  33. 2.9 Input/Output • 2.9.1 Direction Registers • PTT—8-bit Port T—address $0240. • Each of the eight pins can be an input (logic levels.) • Fig. 2.15—illustrates the direction register DDRT. • If DDRT = $FF all pins are outputs. • If DDRT = $00 all pins are inputs. • If DDRT = $0F PT0-PT3 are outpus; others are inputs.

  34. Checkpoint • Checkpoint 2.19: What happens if we were to set DDRT ro $F0?

  35. Example 2.1 (page 46 of text) • Make PTT pins 7-4 input and pins 3-0 output, then make PT3-PT0 output high. • Set the direction register: • ldaa #$0F • staa DDRT • Set the outputs high • ldaa #$0F • staa PTT

  36. 2.9.2 Switch Interface • SPST—single poll single throw • Figure 2.16 (page 47). • Mechanical switches is subject to bouncing—this can be reduced by reading the value and then waiting 10ms before reading again.

  37. 2.9.3 LED Interface • LEDs emit light when electric current passes through them. • The current must pass from the anode to the cathode. • The cathode is the short lead. • Figure 2.17 (page 47). • Suppose the desired brightness requires 1.9V. • R = (5 –Vd-Vol)/Id = (5-1.9-.5)/.01 = 260 ohms. • Vd is the desired operating voltage. • Vol is the ouput low voltage of the LED driver. • Id is the desired LED current.

  38. Checkpoint • Checkpoint 2.20: What resistor value in Figure 2.17 is needed if the desired LED operating point is 1.7 V and 5 mA?

  39. LEDs (cont.) • The driver is not needed when the LED current is much less than 10 mA. • Figure 2.18 (page 48) illustrates this situation for LED interfacing. • Positive logic interface: R = (Voh – Vd)/Id. • Negative logic interface: R = (5-Vd-Vol)/Id.

  40. Checkpoint • Checkpoint 2.21: What resistor value in Figure 2.18 is needed if the desired LED operating point is 1.7V and 2 mA?

  41. Example 2.2 (page 48-49) • Build a system with three LEDs that flash a rotating sequence 100,010,001 over and over. • Use low current LEDs (cheaper and easier to interface). • Use PT0-PT2 as the three output pins. • As shown in Figure 2.18, build three positive logic LED circuits as shown in Figure 2.19. • Software is shown on pages 49 and 50.

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