word

1. word The word is the minimum free form (Bloomfield 1933:37).A word can possess a certain degree of autonomy:it can be preceded and followed by a pause; it can bear stress; and it is fairly unselective with regard to adjacent elements; it can move independently of its host;under appropriate conditions words can be moved around in a sentence.

2. exceedingly:adv.to an unusual degree非常地，极度地 ex-: out; beyond (向外，超出) 前缀 Family members: export 出口, 输出 expose 展开, 揭露 exit 出口 exhale 呼气 exclude 排外，排斥 excavate 挖出，发掘 expel 赶出，逐走 extract 抽出，拔出 >>>more 返回

3. Family members proceedv. 前进, 进行 procedure n.步骤, 手续 processn. 过程 procession n. 行进的行 列, 队伍 succeed v. 继承，接续 exceedv.超过, 越过 excessn. 过度, 过分 excessive adj. 过多的, 过分的 excessively adv. 过分地，非常地 ceed, cede, cess: go; move forward (走) 词根

4. simplify: vt.make sth. easy to do or understand; make simple 使易懂；简化 Family members: simple + -fy simplify简化 pure + -fy purify净化 solid + -fy solidify加固 beauty + -fy beautify美化 clear + -fy clarify使明确

5. V. Exercises—Word Building Back Look at the following nouns and choose from them to fill in the blanks of the sentences that follow. excellence brilliance competence consequence ignorance indifference intelligence magnificence significance 上一页 下一页

6. Back V. Exercises—Word Building • Examinations are not necessarily the best way to measure ___________________. • The power station was shown to be dangerous and, as a ___________, was closed down. • This discovery was of great __________, but few people realized that. • In the “I to you” approach, the workers were in complete _________ of the management’s plans. intelligence/competence consequence significance ignorance 上一页 下一页

7. Back V. Exercises—Word Building 5. I don’t like the department chairman’s ___________ to the teachers who are not in his favor. 6. I hear on all sides of the _________ of your establishment. 7. The sun has both _________ and heat. 8. There is calm and joy, too, when the mind can focus on the ____________ and beauty of nature. indifference excellence brilliance magnificence 上一页 下一页

8. V. Exercises—Word Building Back Look at the following words that come from word building and choose from them to fill in the blanks. Remember to change the form where necessary. co-director cooperate co-author coexist copilot 上一页 下一页

9. Back V. Exercises—Word Building coexists • We must be aware that peace _______ with war. • He was the __________ of that film which was half criticized and half praised. • The couple spoke about how they would _________ in the raising of their child. • The pilot was seriously injured and the ______ took over. • He is the _________, with Andrew Blowers, of The International Politics of Nuclear Waste. co-director cooperate copilot co-author 上一页 下一页

10. Text B: Comprehension Guide & Language Points gratitude:n.the feeling of being grateful or thankful 感激，感谢 返回 -itude：表示抽象名词的后缀 altitude高度 multitude众多 aptitude才能 solitude孤独 fortitude刚毅 plentitude充分 latitude纬度 longitude经度 attitude态度 decrepitude衰老

11. Category the determiner (Det.) boy noun (n.) often qualifier plays verb (v.) a Det. very degree word (Deg) small modifier boy n. must, should… auxiliary (Aux.) and, but, or… conjunction (Con.)

12. Morphemes • The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech.Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes. • A free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech. • Bound morphemes are mostly affixes.

13. basic concepts the minimal lexical or grammatical unit e.g. care, -ful, re-, -ness morpheme: one morpheme may have several pronunciations or phonological forms. Each is an allomorph of the same morpheme, e.g. cats [ts],dogs[z], watches [iz] allomorph: root: the part of the word left when all the affixes have been removed, care in careful

14. affix: a morpheme which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word,e.g. un-, -s, -ed, -ful • stem: the part of the word to which affixes of any kind can be added, e.g. care, careless,in carelessness • derivational morpheme: affixes added to a word to create a new word,e.g. –ness • inflectional morpheme:affixes attached to the end of a word to indicate grammatical relationships, e.g. -ed, -ing

15. Affixes • Affixes are meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attaches to some other form .It can change the semantic content and /or the syntactic function of a word, but cannot stand alone .inedible counteract, pseudo-science or enslave,refusal,happiness • the ,a word or an affix? In spite of some affix-like properties,it is best considered a word.

16. Allomorphs • Allomorph---the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological forms.inactive, immature, irregular,illegal • Allophone cats ,dogs; fast, breakfast;head, forehead; day, Monday

17. Derivational Affixes and Inflectional Affixes Derivational affixes are used to create new words, while inflectional affixes change the form of a word according to its syntactic role in a sentence. E.g. The verb-forming –ize in characterize (>character) , and the negative-forming un-of untidy. diversity ,nationalism, simplify, burdensome, foolish, humorous

18. free ~:may form a word by itself Morpheme bound ~: must appear with at least one other morpheme ---free root bound root derivational affix inflectional

19. open-class words: closed-class words: grammatical: lexical words: variable: invariable words: 2. subclassification of words the membership is infinite,e.g.n.,v. the membership is fixed,e.g. prep whose role is largely grammatical,e.g. this, the , when carries the semantic content, e.g. book, run grammatically different word forms arise,e.g. look--looks, looked, looking no grammatically different forms,e.g. since,in, hello

20. Charade • There is a word of seven letters, take away five, a male remains,take away four, a female, take away three, you will have a brave man, while the whole is a brave woman. • Answer :heroine • My first means equality; My second inferiority,And my whole superiority • Answer: Matchless(match, less, matchless) • A notice : Professor Blackie will meet his classes tomorrow. • Professor Blackie will meet his lasses tomorrow. • Professor Blackie will meet his asses tomorrow. (decapitation)

21. 3. compounds: a word which is composed of two or more roots Features: * When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. n.+n.= n. landlady * When the two words are in different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the category of the compound,e.g. adj. +n. =n. gentleman. * Compounds often have different stress patterns from noncompounded word sequences, e.g.`hotdog, hot dog * the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts, e.g. `redneck red neck

22. Content Words They,sometimes also called “lexical words” belong to the major parts of speech: nouns, verbs, and adjectives, etc. These categories are said to be “open categories” in the sense that they each have a large number of members and languages readily add new members to these categories through borrowing from other languages borrowed or loan words or invention or coining of new words.

23. Coining New Words • Compounds are the combination of two independent words, i.e. free morphemes, like guesthouse (<guest+house), while affixation a bound morpheme is added to a base, as a prefix(e.g.un.like) or suffix(like.ness)

24. Word Coinage Patterns • Conversion(or ‘zero derivation’), change of word class without addition of a formal suffix, as from verb to noun . • Clipping syllables are cut off from a word. As in pub<public house, bike< bicycle. • Blends are formed from parts of existing words. Such as brunch (<breakfast+ lunch) • Acronyms i.e. full words formed from the initial letters of other words, such as radar(radio detecting and ranging AIDS,IBM

25. Function words They are called“grammatical words” or “closed categories”, resistant to borrowing or inventing anew. Such categories as determiners (e.g. the ,a\n, this, that these\those,sometimes also called “articles” ), pronouns, and prepositions, and quantifiers (e.g. “some”, “many” ) are function word categories. Function words show how the content words in a phrase, or sentence relate to each other, or how pieces of information fit into an on-going communication.

26. Six Major Types of Cohesive Devices The Federal Government expected Indian Nations to sign treaties. However, though =6 Conjunctions and conjunction- like links mostof =2 Quantifiers and Determiners them =1 Pronouns hadin fact =6 done so , =3 Substitution the =2 Determiner Seminoles =5 Lexical cohesion semantically related would not ____. =4 Ellipsis ( Halliday and Hasan1976,1989)

27. Conversations Sentence Arrangement 1.About one month later Bill was alone thinking about his friend Joe. 2 Joe said :“I have some good news and bad news for you.” 3 One day Joe died and went to heaven. 4 “The bad news is that you are pitching next Friday night.” 5.“Well ,”said Joe, “The good news is that there is baseball in heaven.” 6. Bill felt a tap on his shoulder and realized that it was Joe. 7 Joe and Bill liked baseball. 8. In fact, they agreed that whichever one died first would return to earth to tell to each other whether there is baseball in heaven. 9 Bill was happy; he asked ‘Tell me , Joe, is there baseball in heaven?”

28. Check-up • 7,8,3,1,6,9,2,5,4

29. Classes/Parts of Speech • maximum homogeneity within the class’(Gleason 1965:130) • Noun : a word or group of words that refers to a person, place or a thing or any syntactically similar word (Collins English Dictionary) • Teacher ,table ;sky, doorway: red, height, happiness; have a swim or his arrival> representatives (prototype) to peripheral • on pure semantic grounds, we would have to recognize a gradience of nounhood. • Three properties as criteria: Phonological,morphological, distributional

30. characteristics Phonological suspect (n.) vs suspect(v.) blackboard , black board Morphological modern/modernize;hair/hairy; able/enable;study,studied as averb’s tense-marker.Nouns’singular or plural forms such as book vs book ox vs oxen etc. Distributional Typically, certain slots in a syntactic construction are reserved for words of a particular form.

31. Verb Classes In terms of verb construction Main Verb Auxiliary( Primary Auxiliary, Modal Auxiliary, Semi-auxiliary) In terms of complementation linking verbs intransitive verbs mono-transitive verbs di-transitive verbs In terms of semantics Dynamic verbs Static verbs

32. Make • God made the country, and man made the town. • Mother made me a new suit. • She made herself a new dress. • I’ll make you some tea. • I made it a rule(Object complement) to take a nap after lunch every day. • He made her happy. • She made him a good husband because she made him a good wife.

33. Verbs followed by an infinitive or a noun or both? • A travel agency announcednot to accept any more bookings for tourist travel to China.(?) • A travel agency announced that it would not accept any more bookings for tourist travel to China. • A travel agency announced its decision not to accept any more bookings for tourist travel to China. • It had been decided,a travel agency announced, not to accept any more bookings for tourist travel to China.

34. Some Unshared Verbs’properties 1. Not all transitive verbs undergo agentive nominalization (a) John is one who imports rugs .John is an importer of rugs. (b) John was one who knew the fact. ＊John was the knower of the fact. 2. Not all verbs undergo able-substitution: • (a)  His handwriting can be read. His handwriting is readable. • (b) The lighthouse can be spotted. • ＊ The lighthouse is spottable. 3 Not all transitive sentences of the form NP V NP undergo passivization. • John kicked the ball. The ball was kicked by John. (b) John owes two dollars. ＊Two dollars are owed by john. Millions of dollars are currently owed by third-world governments

35. McCawley’s Comparison • Parts of speech are much more like biological species than has generally been recognized. Within any part of speech, or any biological species, there is considerable diversity. Parts of speech can be distinguished from one another, just as biological species can be distinguished from one another, in terms of characteristics that are typical for the members of that part of speech (or species), even though none of those properties need be instantiated by all members of the parts speech(or ,pieces). ( McCawley1986:12)

36. China Uncovers Defalcation of Poverty Relief Funds BEIJING, August 8 (Xinhuanet) -- The Ministry of Finance Wednesday made public the names of local government departments and officials who are involved in three cases of defalcation of poverty relief funds. The ministry said in a news release that the offenders will be dealt with according to law and disciplined according to government rules. All the diverted funds will be retrieved. The provincial office of poverty alleviation and development in Gansu Province, northwest China, diverted 27.5 million yuan in poverty relief funds to build office and apartment buildings, and buy cars. The provincial office of poverty alleviation and development in Shaanxi Province, also in northwest China, diverted 10.9 million yuan in poverty relief funds to pay for office expenses and facilities. Wang Xiaohong, director of the office of poverty alleviation and development in Yunlian County of Sichuan Province, southwest China, defalcated 1.7 million yuan worth of poverty relief funds in 1997-2000,

37. accounting for nearly two-thirds the relief funds that the central government had given to the county. She misused the government money by purchasing properties, giving bonuses to office staff, and paying for dinners and business trips. The Ministry of Finance has asked authorities concerned to deal with Wang according to law because she also tried to cover up her offenses through illegal ways. The ministry discovered these cases in a February-April inspection of the distribution, management and use of poverty relief funds by local governments in eight provinces and autonomous regions. The central government gives some 25.3 billion yuan worth of poverty relief funds to local governments every year. In order to stamp out misuse of poverty relief funds, the ministry will set up a fund management system at the provincial level, and put the funds directly into the accounts of local units that undertake poverty relief projects. It will also enhance supervision of accounting and step up scrutiny of the efficiency of using poverty relief funds.

38. Assignment