The Second Civil War

1. The Second Civil War Islamic History: the First 150 Years

2. Session Plan • Marwan & the Emergence of Abd al-Malik • The Revolt of al-Mukhtar • Abd al-Malik Victorious

3. Section I: Marwan & the Emergence of Abd al-Malik

4. Marwan • We have encountered Marwan ibn al-Hakam during previous sessions • He was a senior member of the Umayyad clan and had been particularly influential during the caliphate of Uthman • By the time he became caliph, Marwan was an old man (aged 63) • Unsurprisingly therefore, perhaps, he died after a few months in office • No doubt mindful of Yazid’s difficulties, Marwan appointed his son Abd al-Malik as heir and his brother Abd al-Aziz as heir after him • Marwan’s aim here was presumably to provide stability • With Marwan’s death, Abd al-Malik became the caliph in 63AH • Abd al-Malik is one of the most important Umayyad rulers and thus we will look at his reign in more detail next week

5. Umayyad Resurgence • With the resolution of ‘internal’ difficulties, Marwan and Abd al-Malik were able to turn their full attention to the war against Ibn al-Zubayr • After Marj Rahit, Emessa, Palestine and Qinnasrin quickly joined Marwan • Egypt was also taken by Marwanid forces shortly after this point • However, in Iraq the situation was somewhat more complicated • Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad was sent by Marwan to attack Iraq • As an incentive, Ubaydullah was promised the governorship and allowed to sack Kufa • Syrian factionalism • Quda’a (‘southerners’) & Qays (‘northerners’) • This became immensely important later on

6. Revolt in Iraq • Iraq at this time was in a state of complete turmoil • Mus’ab ibn al-Zubayr was the nominal governor of the province, holding it for his brother • Despite this, Kufa was on the point of rebellion • There were also a number of Kharijite groups in the area • In short, navigating our way through this maze will take us off track • As such, I propose to only look at the main events • Those interested in understanding this period in more detail should consult the following works… • J. Wellhausen The Arab Kingdom and its Fall (old and dated, but still useful) • G. Hawting The First Dynasty of Islam (a useful introduction and in the Lifelong Learning Library) • A.A.A. Dixon The Umayyad Caliphate 65-86/684-705: a Political Study (very detailed, good account of Mukhtar’s revolt, but not for the faint hearted)

7. Section II: The Revolt of al-Mukhtar

8. Al-Mukhtar • Al-Muktar ibn Abi Ubayd al-Thaqafi (to give him his full title) from the large and important Thaqif tribe • The Thaqif tribe based primarily at Ta’if in the southern Hijaz • Generally speaking, al-Mukhtar has had a very negative press, both then and now • Despite this, his family were committed supporters of Ali • His father was killed at the Battle of the Bridge during the conquest of Iraq, whilst his uncle had been governor of al-Madain for Ali • Al-Mukhtar’s house was used as Muslim ibn Aqil’s base in his brief sojourn in Kufa • Mukhtar’s revolt was an important episode for a number of reasons • However, the details are very uncertain and too complex for our purposes here • So, here is a very potted history…

9. ‘Ya Li Tharat Husayn’ • The Tawwabun (or the ‘Penitents’) • Those people in Kufa who felt they had abandoned Husayn in his hour of need • Led by Sulaiman ibn Surad • Battle of Ain al-Warda • The Penitents slain, almost to a man • However, their ideas are important and thus it is worth looking at some of these briefly

10. ‘Ya Li Tharat Husayn’ ‘Now we have been afflicted by the length of our lives and by exposure to all types of trials. We ask of our Lord that He does not make us one of those to whom He will one day say, “Did We not give you long life so that whoever would be admonished might be admonished therein? And the warner came to you?’ [35:34] Also, the Commander of the Faithful [Ali] said, “The life in which God grants forgiveness to the son of Adam is sixty years”, and there is not a man among us who has not reached that term. We were enamoured of self-justification and praising our party until God put our best men to the test and found us sham on two of the battlefields of the son of our Prophet’s daughter. Before that, we had received his letters and his messengers had come to us offering forgiveness, asking us to help him again in public and in private. But we withheld ourselves from him until he was killed…

11. ‘Ya Li Tharat Husayn’ ‘…We did not help him with our hands, argue on his behalf with our tongues, strengthen him with our wealth or seek help for him from our clans. What will be our excuse for our Lord and at the meeting with our Prophet when his descendent, is loved one, his offspring and his issue has been slain among us? No, by God, there is no excuse unless you kill his murderer and those who assisted him or unless you are killed while seeking that. Perhaps our Lord will be satisfied with that, for I have no security against His punishment after meeting Him…This is what I have to say. I ask God’s forgiveness for me and for you’ (Tab. 2.498)

12. ‘Ya Li Tharat Husayn’ • Mukhtar’s main claim was twofold • Revenge for Husayn • Deputy of Imam Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya • His revolt was at first successful, taking control of Kufa, Basra and much of Iraq • He was then joined by Ibrahim ibn Malik al-Ashtar, a committed follower of Ali • At the Battle of the Khazir, Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad is defeated and killed, thus Mukhtar was able to publicly claim he had avenged Husayn • Internal revolts in Kufa, coupled with invasions by Umayyads and Zubayrids soon end Mukhtar’s revolt and he is eventually killed • This results in yet more oppression at Kufa, particularly this time of the mawali

13. Al-Mukhtar & the Mawali • Al-Mukhtar’s treatment of the mawali was one of the most significant aspects of his political programme • To understand his ideas a little better, it is worth looking at the mawali more closely • The word mawla (mawali is the plural) is a varied term, which for our purposes here means ‘freedman’, ‘associate’ or ‘retainer’ • Originally, the term was used to describe ex-slaves who were still tied to their former masters • A mawla would thus be affiliated to the tribe of his master • During the course of the conquests, mawla came to mean non-Arab Muslim – who would be affiliated upon conversion to an Arab tribe • The mawali were often treated differently by Arab Muslims in a number ways • They were often still made to pay the jizyah (poll tax) and other taxes which, according to the Quran, they should not have paid • This caused discontent and al-Mukhtar consciously played to this, offering complete equality

14. Mukhtar and the Mahdi • Consequently, the mawali of Kufa (and Iraq in general) joined Mukhtar on mass • After he began to lose, he relied on the mawali to an ever greater extent • This exacerbated his difficulties with the ashraf (or tribal elite) • The sources also report a number of unusual religious activities associated with Mukhtar’s mawali • Some of them are said to have carried an empty chair into battle and called it ‘the Throne of Ali’ • They are also said to have used it like the Israelites used the Ark of the Covenant ‘Al-Mukhtar said, “Nothing has existed among past communities but that its like will exist in this community. Among the Children of Israel there was the Ark, in which there was a remnant of what the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left behind. Among us, this is lie the Ark. Uncover it!” When they removed its draperies, the Saba’iyyah [followers of Abdullah ibn Saba’, or ‘extremists’] stood up, raised their hands and shouted “God is great” three times…Presently, someone said, “Behold, Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad is encamped with the Syrians at Bajumayra.” So they took the Chair out on a mule. It was covered; seven men held it on its right and seven on its left…’ (Tab. 2.704)

15. Mukhtar and the Mahdi • This provoked sharp criticism • A`sha Hamdan’s critical verse ‘I bear witness against you that you are Saba’iyyah; O picked troops of polytheism [shirk], I know you well! I swear that your Chair is no Sakinah [cf. Quran 2:248], even if cloths have been draped over it; And that it is not like the Ark among us, even if Shibam, Nahd and Kharif walk around it…’ (Quoted in Tab. 2.704-705) • Sakinah means ‘tranquillity’; Shekinah is the cognate Hebrew term, denoting the divine presence on earth • Although the sources are uniformly hostile, it is also reported that Mukhtar claimed to receive divine inspiration himself • It is claimed that he saw the Archangel Gabriel (though it is also said that he did not hear him speak) • Hard to know what to make of such claims • That the newly converted mawali (and Yemeni Arabs) brought their own religious traditions with them seems uncontroversial • But the claim for Mukhtar could merely be malicious slander, or else it could reveal an authentic piece of information

16. Mukhtar and the Mahdi • Although these things are certainly interesting, perhaps the most important aspect of Mukhtar’s religious ideas was that of the Mahdi • Mahdi simply means ‘rightly guided’ • However, it came to refer to the messianic deliverer, who would restore justice to the world immediately prior to the Apocalypse • Although the term is used prior to this point, it does not seem to have this usage • Mukhtar claimed that he had revolted in the name of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya (Ali’s third son, but not by Fatima) • He claimed that ibn al-Hanafiyya was the messianic deliverer who would avenge the Shia and restore their rightful place • Although, as the passage I have given you from Ibn Sa’d shows, ibn al-Hanafiyya himself was lukewarm in his support of Mukhtar, this claim was to be repeated throughout Shiite history

17. Mukhtar and the Mahdi • Furthermore, after the deaths of Ibn al-Hanafiyya and Mukhtar, their followers began to claim that Muhammad had not died • He was said to be alive, in a miraculous sense [cf. the Quranic idea of Jesus] • He was believed to be in a state of ‘occultation’ (ghayba) on a mountain near Medina • The partisans of Ibn al-Hanafiyya later became known as the Kaysaniyya • This are said to have been named after one Kaysan, the mawla leader of Mukhtar’s guard • Leadership of this group passed to Muhammad’s son, Abu Hashim, who we will meet again • This concept of ghayba later became a key doctrine of a wide number of other Shii groups; generally considered ‘extreme’ (ghulat) • The main Twelver Shia branch (of Iran) believe that their last Imam, Muhammad ibn Ali al-`Askari, is in occultation and will return as the Mahdi • Political defeat; hopes for restitution, vengeance and victory are transferred to eschatological time

18. Questions?

19. Section III: Abd al-Malik Victorious

20. Assault on Mecca • Although he had initially been widely recognised, with Abd al-Malik’s accession and Mukhtar’s revolt, Ibn al-Zubayr’s authority began to fade away • With Mukhtar’s revolt crushed, Abd al-Malik marched into Iraq and defeated Mus`ab ibn al-Zubayr • Abd al-Malik then sent his general Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi to lay siege to Mecca once again • al-Hajjaj is a famous character from this period, whom we will meet again next week • He bombarded Mecca, again damaging the Ka’ba • And, in 692 CE Mecca fell to his direct assault • Ibn al-Zubayr, at this point aged 70, died in the fighting • His death thus left Abd al-Malik in control of the Muslim empire • However, the Muslim state had been thrown into turmoil through these events and badly needed stability

21. Abd al-Malik Victorious • Abd al-Malik was able to provide the necessary stability • He ruled for 20 years (685-705CE) • His reign saw crucial religious, political, social and economic developments • As such, we will look more closely at his reign next week • However, to prepare, I suggest you read through Ibn Sa’d’s biography, which I have given you • Also, read I. Lapdius’ summary of Abd al-Malik’s period in the first reading pack I gave you • As his reign is important in a number of ways, so we will look more closely at it next week

22. Consequences • The Second Civil War, or fitna, was a critical period in early Islamic history • This was for a number of reasons • Umayyad dominance, though reasserted by Abd al-Malik, had been shown to be challengeable; the later Umayyad dynasty thus has to face numerous revolts against its authority; Abd al-Malik thus had to walk a very narrow path • Mecca and Medina had both been eclipsed politically; thus although both were important religious centres, they ceased to be decisive in political matters after this point • The Shiat Ali had begun to develop into a particular religious movement, despite its origins as a ‘political faction’; the later Umayyad period would see this development go still further • The Mawali had begun to become a force to be reckoned with in Muslim life; during the later Umayyad period, calls for their fair treatment grew increasingly loud • This period saw a number of important religious developments; the death of Husayn, Mukhtar, the ‘neutral’ group and others all grew out of this period • Tribal factionalism; the Quda’a and Qays divide began to spread throughout the Muslim empire, creating division