Rhythms in Humans

1. Rhythms in Humans • Yearly - seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, moods ….Seasonal Affective Disorder28 day - female menstrual cycle90 minute- we cycle through various stages of sleep • 24 hour -Circadian Rhythms: alertness, body temp, growth hormone secretion • What happens if no external cues? 25-hour cycle • Jet lag West to East Phase advance East to West Phase delay • Sleep Deprivation:form of torture, stress, after about 72 hours, slip unwillingly into brief, repeated periods of “microsleep” Latin: circa means “about” and diem “day”

2. Theories on Sleep There is no physiological reason found for sleep Sleep is a state of consciousness Evolutionary/Circadian Theory: Sleep evolved so that… Adaptive: Species need a certain time awake to survive. Sleep protects by keeping out of trouble. Conserving Energy: Less calories burned Repair/Restoration Theory: Restore body and nervous system, heal wounds, recover from emotional and intellectual fatigue

3. Sleep as a change in consciousness • Sleep Stages • Stage 1 • Stage 2 • Stage 3 • Stage 4 • REM Collectively called NREM stages

4. Brain Waves

5. Sleep Stages 1 & 2 Stage 1 • Theta Waves, irregular, breathing slows, light sleep, easily awakened, lasts about two minutes, may have sensory experience without stimulus • Stage 2 • About 20 minutes long • Characterized by sleep spindles (bursts of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity) and K Complexes • Easily awakened but clearly asleep

6. DEEP Sleep stages 3 & 4 Stage 3 • A purely transitional stage • Marked by 20-50% delta waves Stage 4 • About 30 minutes long • Hard to awaken • Delta waves > than 50% of the time • Walking or talking in sleep, wetting the bed, and night terrors can occur during this stage • Still attend to external stimuli • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z2BgjH_CtIA

7. Sleep Stages REM REM • Occurs the first time about an hour into the sleep cycle • Brain waves rapid • Breathing and heart rate rapid • Arousal of genitals • Rapid eye movement • Essentially paralyzed during this stage • Cannot easily be awakened

8. The Cycles of Sleep • Repeats about every 90 minutes, 4-7 times • REM sleep increases as the night moves on • About 25% of sleep is REM

9. Specific Sleep Disorders: “Dyssomnias” & “Parasomnias” • Sleep Apnea: irregular breathing or periods of many seconds without breathing during sleep, snoring, repeated awakenings • Narcolepsy: Sudden, irresistible onset of sleep during waking hours, cataplexy is sudden attack of muscle weakness/paralysis http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2204446853653695027# http://insideedition.com/videos.aspx?videoID=3 • Insomnia: persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep (note: sleeping pills can be helpful for short-term, but create more problems than they solve for more than that) • REM without Atonia: Atonia is loss of muscle tone when we dream… without means we can more easily act out our dreams – can be dangerous • Restless leg: leg discomfort during sleep, which is only relieved by frequent movements of the legs, no known cause • Sleep walking, talking: Walking tend to accompany night terrors and occur during NREM, talking an happen at any stage • Night Terrors: (NREM), children, sudden terror, may be difficult to waken • Nightmares: Usually during REM sleep, bad dreams • Sleep Paralysis: strikes as person is moving into or out of REM sleep. During REM body is largely disconnected from brain leaving the body paralyzed.

10. The Function of Dreaming • Function: Why do we dream? Wish Fulfillment (Freud): - Freud believed that dreams let us see into repressed memories and unacceptable desires - Dream of beating up a bully – wish fulfillment - Manifest Content (actual, story line of dream) Latent Content (symbolic, meaning behind dream) - The Interpretation of Dreams (1913) Information Processing (Cartwright): The need to continue processing the day’s activities. Solves problems Activation - Synthesis Hypothesis (Hobson & McCarley): Triggered by neural activity from the brainstem, “biological view,” brain guides how dream is constructed around brain activity According to Freud… Journey = death Horseback riding = sex Dancing = sex Gun, cigar, etc = penis

11. Psychoactive Drugs: Chemicals that change conscious awareness, mood and/or perception Factors Influencing Drugs Effects • Tolerance • Weight • Physiology • Amount and strength • Mood • Personality • Age • Gender

12. Drugs and Consciousness • Concepts in Drug Use • Tolerance: The need to use more & more of a drug to continue to get the same effects • Reverse Tolerance: taking same or less amount of drug produces bigger effect b/c combines with drugs still in system • Dependence • Physiological: Showing a withdrawal syndrome once removed from the drug regimen • Psychological: An emotional need for the drug (craving) • Co-dependence: When another person ‘enables’ the drug dependent person (Ex: wife calls husband in sick when he is actually hung over) • Withdrawal: A distinct set of physiological symptoms associated with the removal of the drug from the system (headaches, cravings, anxiety, depression, seizures, delirium tremens “DT’s”) Delirium: -Acute & debilitating decline in attention-focus, perception & cognition - Produces altered form of semi-consciousness Hallucinations & delusions are often present

13. Did you know?Tobacco kills more than AIDS, legal drugs, illegal drugs, road accidents, murder and suicide combined Classifications of Drugs • Stimulants: Drugs that stimulate CNS activity (activity & responsiveness) • Ex – amphetamines, methamphetamine (cyrstal meth), caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, MDMA or “Ecstasy,” Speed, Ritalin • Depressants (Sedatives): Drugs which decrease CNS activity (relaxation, sedation, loss of consciousness & even death) • Ex - Alcohol, Barbiturates (Seconal, Valium), Minor tranquilizers (Rohypnol or “roofies”), Ketamine or “Special K” • Hallucinogens (Psychedelics): Drugs that change perception and self-awareness • Ex - LSD, PCP, marijuana • Opiates (Narcotics): Drugs derived from opium that numb the senses and relieve pain • Ex – Morphine, heroin, codeine

14. Classical Conditioning • Definition: A type of learning that occurs when an association is made between a meaningful stimulus & a non-meaningful stimulus • Ivan Pavlov (1903 Pavlovian Conditioning) • Russian physiologist/digestion in dogs • John Watson (1925) • Little Albert

15. Terminology • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response (automatic) • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning To the food (UCS) To the bell (CS)

16. Classical Conditioning –another version

17. Second-Order Conditioning

18. Procedures in Classical Conditioning • Conditioning or Acquisition • Presenting the CS and the UCS together • Testing and Extinction • Presenting the CS alone

19. Processes in Classical Conditioning • Acquisition: initial stage of learning • Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency (does not mean “unlearn”) - CS repeatedly presented without UCS • Spontaneous Recovery: a reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus • Stimulus Generalization: a similar CS makes a CR • Classic Study: “Little Albert” • Stimulus Discrimination: no CR with a similar CS

20. Acquisition, Extinction & Spont. Recovery Curve

21. Operant Conditioning: modification of voluntary behavior based on consequences • Thorndike’s Law of Effect Behavior before positive reinforcement  Behavior before punishment or no reinforcement  • Puzzle Box • Skinner • Skinner Box • Shaping: Reinforcing small steps toward more complex behavior (easiest to build on animals’ existing behavior) • Discriminative Stimulus: signals availability of reinforcement or punishment (light, sound, parent)

22. Skinner Box

23. Consequences  Reinforcement (+)add/give (-)subtract/remove • Reinforcement: consequences that strengthen responses • Positive Reinforcement: A response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus (Money, praise, food, stickers, candy, smile) • Negative Reinforcement: A response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (buzzer for seat belt) *Note: “positive” & “negative” are not synonymous with “good” & “bad” or “nice” & “mean” • Conditioned Reinforcement • Primary Reinforcers: Inherently reinforcing satisfy biological needs (food, water, shelter) • Secondary Reinforcers: Acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers (money, stickers, praise)

24. Consequences  Punishment (+)add/give (-)subtract/remove Punishment: consequences that weaken responses • Positive Punishment: addition of a stimulus that decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again. (Adding chores for getting home late) • Negative Punishment: taking away a stimulus that decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again (grounding, no car, no scholarship) The Big Bang Theory Clip *Note: “positive” & “negative” are not synonymous with “good” & “bad” or “nice” & “mean”

25. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous: Reinforce every time (fastest, but quickest to extinction) Partial Schedules • Variable Ratio: Reinforcer after a variable number of nonreinforced responses • Variable Interval: Reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses • Fixed Interval: Reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed

26. Schedules of Reinforcement

27. Extinction • Variable schedulesare most resistant to extinction • Ratio schedulescause the greatest amount of response

28. Observational Learning • Definition: Occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others (model) • Four Processes (Bandura) • Attention – watch closely • Retention – remember what was taught • Reproduction – demonstrate what we learned • Motivation – have desire to learn and repeat what was learned • Applications of Observational Learning - prejudice, domestic violence, media influences, prosocial behavior • http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4586465813762682933#(bobo) • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hzh-gW-CO8

29. Bobo Doll Visual

30. Other Forms of Learning • Insight: Sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution • Cognitive Mapping: A mental representation of spatial orientations that may not require direct experience to be learned • Latent Learning: Learning that has occurred but has not been expressed (often appears when reward for displaying it)

31. History of Intelligence Testing • Francis Galton • Believed that intelligence was related to visual acuity and reaction time • Alfred Binet • French Government • Mental age • Fear test would be abused

32. History of Intelligence Testing • Terman (Stanford-Binet Scale) • revised the Binet scale • created the term IQ • “IQ” determined by taking: MA/CA x 100 • Extended the test to also assess IQ in adults • The normal distribution of intelligence scores • Wechsler • Developed a more accurate test for adults • First to use standard deviation, bell curve • Examples of some of the test developed by Wechsler include • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

33. Kinds of Intelligence • Spearman - “g” and “s” • “g”-general intelligence • “s”-specific abilities

34. Kinds of Intelligence • Gardner - Theory of Multiple Intelligences • He believed that intelligence could be broken down into seven categories:

35. Kinds of Intelligence • Sternberg - Triarchic Theory • He believed that intelligence could be broken down into three categories • creative intelligence-ability to solve problems with novel solutions • practical intelligence-”common sense” • analytical intelligence-ability to analyze a problem into its integral components

36. Kinds of Intelligence Raymond Cattell • Fluid Intelligence: innate, inherited intelligence including reasoning and problem solving abilities, memory, and speed of info-processing - relatively independent of education - tend to decline with age • Crystallized Intelligence: specific knowledge and skills gained through experience & education- tend to increase over life span

37. Types & Characteristics of Tests Types • Aptitude: person’s capability, potential for future • Achievement: person’s knowledge of subject, what they have learned Characteristics • Validity: the ability of the test to measure what you say it will measure • Reliability: the ability of the test to measure a construct with consistency • Standardization: the use of reference scores for interpreting an individual’s performance

38. Types of Validity & Reliability of Tests Reliability • Test-retest: take the test again – same score? • Alternate form: give similar, but alternate form – same score? • Inter-rater: do all graders give the same score? Validity • Content: Complete range of material to test concept • Criterion: Compare to other tests of the same measure (high on SAT, high on ACT) • Predictive: future performance (MCAT) • Construct: theoretical or hypothetical construct (depression, intelligence)

39. Definition: Sub-field of psychology that studies of how others influence our thoughts, feelings and actions Focuses on…- How large social forces such as groups, social roles and norms bring out the best and worst in all of us - Explaining why people act differently in the same situation, and why the same person may act differently in different situations. Chapter 16: Social Psychology

40. Conformity and Obedience • Conformity – going along with a group; yielding to social pressure • Asch’s Conclusions 1) subjects often conform to a group, even when the group states clearly inaccurate conclusions 2) conformity to a group increases with the size of the group, up to five or six, but only when the group is unanimous in its beliefs • Obedience – going along with a direct command, often from figure of authority • Milgram’s Conclusions 1) situational pressures can make people obey instructions that go against their belief systems http://www.france24.com/en/20100317-disturbing-tv-docu-game-tests-limits-small-screen-power-france-game-of-death

41. Attribution Theory Definition: Inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others’ behavior, and their own behavior Dispositional Attribution: we attribute a person’s behavior to an internal state (personality, abilities, etc.) Situational Attribution: attributing a person’s behavior to an external state (stress, abuse, hardship, wealth, etc.) • Function: People like to explain and understand behavior and the events that impact their lives • Attributions are made when an event is unusual and personal • “Just world” phenomenon

42. Bias in Attribution • Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): Observer’s bias in favor of internal attributions in explaining others’ behavior but external attributions in explaining their own (Ex: Someone else drops out of college because “they couldn’t handle the pressure or work load” – internal. You drop out of college because “tuition was raised and you had to help support your family” – external) • Defensive Attribution: Tendency to blame the victim for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way • Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal factors and one’s failures to situational factors

43. Attitudes & Attitude Formation - When we observe & respond to the world around us, it is never without the influence of our attitudes (even if we don’t realize it). - Advertisers spend millions because they know that attitudes can be shaped & changed….to their benefit $$ • Definition Positive, negative, or mixed feelings, based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. Ex: A friend tells you that they believe Coach Stove is a mean teacher. You may feel dislike for Coach Stove, and act unfriendly. • Components of Attitudes • Cognitive: What you believe • Affective: How you feel about it • Behavioral: What you are willing to do about it

44. Cognitive Dissonance & Social Facilitation Social Facilitation Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others  better on simple tasks  worse on complex tasks Cognitive Dissonance Theory: When we act in a way not consistent with our beliefs we feel tension. We then revise our beliefs to align with our behavior. Example:  Asked to do hour long boring task  Offered $1 or $20 to say it’s fun  Results: Larger payment led to less dissonance b/c high payment could account for ‘lying’. $1 was not enough to justify lying so those people changed their attitude to saying they enjoyed the task Example: After you go to all the trouble of buying a new house you start to like it more

45. Person Perception • Definition: The process of forming impressions of others • Impressions are influenced by: • Physical appearance • good looking people are seen as intelligent, friendly, and confident • Schemas: Organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people • 1st Impressions: self fulfilling prophecy, primacy • Stereotypes: gender, race, job

46. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination • Stereotype: Thoughts and beliefs held about people strictly because of their membership in a group • Prejudice: A negative attitude held toward members of a group • Discrimination: Negative actions towards a group Explanations These often arise from learning, personal experience, mental shortcuts, economic & political competition, & displaced aggression • Scapegoat: Blame other groups without as much power • Social Identity (in-group bias): Favor own group • Outgroup Homogeneity: Judge members of outgroup as more alike • Learning Theory: Classical or operant conditioning • Cognitive: Easier to organize our world if we ‘categorize’

47. Social Influence • Chameleon Effect: our tendency to unconsciously mimic those around us • Yawning when others yawn • Picking up the mood of a happy or sad person • Dress like your friends This automatic mimicry is an ingredient in our ability to empathize with others

48. Behavior in Groups Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs Failed attempt to assassination Fidel Castro in Cuba. All of the 1400 men were captured or killed within three days. The drive for consensus among Kennedy's advisors was believed to have precluded crucial information from being discussed, and has been blamed for the invasion's failure. The flawed decision of President Kennedy and his advisors to authorize the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba is the example commonly used to illustrate the phenomenon of groupthink. Symptoms of groupthink include group members' tendency to(i) believe the group to be more invulnerable than it is; (ii) rationalize the group's decisions and believe stereotypes about its enemies; and (iii) feel increasing pressure to agree with others in the group. The power of group membership affects us in many ways… • Social Roles: (as mentioned before with Zimbardo study) • Deindividuation: Feel less self-conscious, less inhibited, & less personally responsible as a member of a group than when you are alone [this can be increased by requiring use of uniform, mask, same haircut, etc…feeling of anonymity] • Bystander Effect: less likely to help others when in groups than when alone • Diffusion of Responsibility: when more people are around we feel less personally responsible to help • Social Loafing: individuals produce less work (reduced efficiency & effort) when working in groups than by themselves • Decision Making Group Polarization - when group discussion leads to a more “polarized”point of view by the group Groupthink - when feel pressure to conform to the group, stops critical thinking to avoid dissention in the group • Ex: Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs

49. Group Polarization

50. Memory • Memory • persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information • internal record or representation of some prior event or experience • Flashbulb Memory • a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event