Population Ecology

1. Population Ecology Chapter 45

2. Population Ecology Certain ecological principles govern the growth and sustainability of all populations--including human populations

3. Limits to Growth • A population’s growth depends on the resources of its environment • Moose/Wolf study on Isle Royal

4. Human Population Problems • Over 6 billion people alive • About 2 billion live in poverty • Most resources are consumed by the relatively few people in developed countries

5. Population • A group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area • Can be described by demographics • Vital statistics such as size, density, distribution, and age structure

6. Population Age Structure • Divide population into age categories • Population’s reproductive base includes members of the reproductive and pre-reproductive age categories

7. Density & Distribution • Number of individuals in some specified area of habitat • Crude density information is more useful if combined with distribution data clumped nearly uniform Figure 45.2 Page 808  random

8. Determining Population Size • Direct counts are most accurate but seldom feasible • Can sample an area, then extrapolate • Capture-recapture method is used for mobile species

9. Capture-Recapture Method • Capture, mark, and release individuals • Return later and capture second sample • Count the number of marked individuals and use this to estimate total population

10. Assumptions in Capture-Recapture • Marking has no effect on mortality • Marking has no effect on likelihood to being captured • There is no immigration or emigration between sampling times

11. Changes in Population Size • Immigration adds individuals • Emigration subtracts individuals • Births add individuals • Deaths subtract individuals

12. Zero Population Growth • Interval in which number of births is balanced by number of deaths • Assume no change as a result of migration • Population size remains stable

13. Per Capita Rates • Rates per individual • Total number of events in a time interval divided by the number of individuals • Per capita birth rate per month = Number of births per month Population size

14. r • Net reproduction per individual per unit time • Variable combines per capita birth and death rates (assuming both constant) • Can be used to calculate rate of growth of a population

15. Exponential Growth Equation G = rN • G is population growth per unit time • r is net reproduction per individual per unit time • N is population size

16. Exponential Growth • Population size expands by ever increasing increments during successive intervals • The larger the population gets, the more individuals there are to reproduce Figure 45.4 Page 810

17. Effect of Deaths • Population grows exponentially as long as per capita death rates are lower than per capita birth rates 25% mortality between divisions Figure 45.5 Page 811

18. Biotic Potential • Maximum rate of increase per individual under ideal conditions • Varies between species • In nature, biotic potential is rarely reached

19. Limiting Factors • Any essential resource that is in short supply • All limiting factors acting on a population dictate sustainable population size

20. Carrying Capacity (K) • Maximum number of individuals that can be sustained in a particular habitat • Logistic growth occurs when population size is limited by carrying capacity

21. Logistic Growth Equation G = rmaxN (K-N/K) • G = population growth per unit time • rmax = maximum population growth rate per unit time • N = number of individuals • K = carrying capacity

22. Logistic Growth • As size of the population increases, rate of reproduction decreases • When the population reaches carrying capacity, population growth ceases

23. Logistic Growth Graph initial carrying capacity new carrying capacity Figure 45.6 Page 812

24. Overshooting Capacity • Population may temporarily increase above carrying capacity • Overshoot is usually followed by a crash; dramatic increase in deaths Reindeer on St. Matthew’s Island Figure 45.6 Page 812

25. Density-Dependent Controls • Logistic growth equation deals with density-dependent controls • Limiting factors become more intense as population size increases • Disease, competition, parasites, toxic effects of waste products

26. Density-Independent Controls • Factors unaffected by population density • Natural disasters or climate changes affect large and small populations alike

27. Life History Patterns • Patterns of timing of reproduction and survivorship • Vary among species • Summarized in survivorship curves and life tables

28. Life Table • Tracks age-specific patterns • Population is divided into age categories • Birth rates and mortality risks are calculated for each age category

29. Survivorship Curves Graph of age-specific survivorship Figure 45.8 Page 815

30. Predation and Life History • Guppy populations vary in life history characteristics and morphology • Differences have genetic basis • Variation seems to be result of directional selection by predators

31. Human Population Growth • Population now exceeds 6 billion • Rates of increase vary among countries • Average annual increase is 1.26 percent • Population continues to increase exponentially

32. Side-Stepping Controls • Expanded into new habitats • Agriculture increased carrying capacity; use of fossil fuels aided increase • Hygiene and medicine lessened effects of density-dependent controls

33. Future Growth • Exponential growth cannot continue forever • Breakthroughs in technology may further increase carrying capacity • Eventually, density-dependent factors will slow growth

34. Fertility Rates • Worldwide, average annual rate of increase is 1.26% • Total fertility rate (TFR) is average number of children born to a woman • Highest in developing countries, lowest in developed countries

35. Age Structure Diagrams Show age distribution of a population Figure 45.14 Page 821 Negative Growth Slow Growth Zero Growth Rapid Growth

36. Population Momentum • Lowering fertility rates cannot immediately slow population growth rate • Why? There are already many future parents alive • If every couple had just two children, population would still keep growing for another 60 years

37. Slowing Growth in China • World’s most extensive family planning program • Government rewards small family size, penalizes larger families, provides free birth control, abortion, sterilization • Since 1972, TFR down to 1.8 from 5.7

38. Effects of Economic Development • Total fertility rates (TFRs) are highest in developing countries, lowest in developed countries • When individuals are economically secure, they are under less pressure to have large families

39. Population Sizes in 2001 Asia 3.7 billion Europe 727 million Africa 816 million Latin America 525 million North America 316 million Oceania 31 million

40. Resource Consumption • United States has 4.7 percent of the world’s population • Americans have a disproportionately large effect on the world’s resources • Per capita, Americans consume more resources and create more pollution than citizens of less developed nations