Aspects of Behavioral Conditioning

1. Aspects of Behavioral Conditioning History of Systems Psychology PSY401 Tiffany Jubb, Joe Milillo, Jen Mislinski, and Cesar Monzon

2. Classical and Operant Conditioning • Classical conditioning is the ability to associate a predictive stimuli with a subsequent important event. These behaviors are primarily automatic. (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005) • Operant conditioning (goal-oriented) is the ability to associate an expressed behavior with its consequences. These behaviors are primarily voluntary in order to learn. (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005) • Both classical and operant conditioning are allow for a predictive understanding of changing environment (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005). • Though both are operationally different, there is a question of difference or similarity in terms of mechanisms in the brain (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005).

3. Classical and Operant Conditioning(cont.) • Research has been finding reasons to believe that these two forms of associative learning do differ at the cellular level (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005) • Interesting similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning are being found. • An important similarity is the reinforcement pathway in which dopamine is the common mediator for both forms of learning (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005). • At a cellular level, both types share the same locus (specific location of a gene) for changes that occur, but had opposite neuron plateau potentials, exhibiting a major difference at this level (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005).

4. Operant Conditioning andApplied Behavior Analysis • Applied behavior analysis (ABA) was established in the second half of the 20th century and is based upon the operant conditioning principles of B.F. Skinner (Ringdahl, Kopelman & Falcomata, 2010). • Operant principles are applied in ABA by examining how events or consequences that follow a specific behavior strengthen or weaken that behavior (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011). • One important principle of operant conditioning is the use of reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs when there is an change in a behavior as a consequence of an event that follows the behavior. That is a response is altered when found to create a consequence that desirable (either positive or negative/ increase or decrease) (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011).

5. Operant Conditioning andApplied Behavior Analysis (cont.) • ABA is considered a science and has been effectively used by clinicians with children suffering from Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in modifying socially significant behaviors (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011). • ABA is even being studied to improve behaviors of those with ASD in various settings such as a dentists offices (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011). • Research is still needed. Important areas are comparisons of ABA with psychopharmacology treatments for ASD, as well as ABA interventions and adults with AS (Matson, Turygin, Bieghley, Rieske, Tureck & Matson) .

6. Neuro-evolution and Operant Conditioning • Operant condition is learning to initiate a behavior in order to gain a reward. This form of learning has been found to rely on the basil ganglia, and has been carried out by animals since it has directly survival value (Meeter, Veldkamp & Jin, 2009). • By understanding memory’s role in survival there are clear benefits each type of memory the brain utilizes. All three layers of basil ganglia (dorsal striatum, striosomes, ventral striatum) were utilized in operant learning, as well as the dopamine-reward system (Meeter, Veldkamp & Jin, 2009).

7. Neuro-evolution and Operant Conditioning • Dopamine was released when an unexpected reward was achieved and then found to be released pre-condition stimulus, when the reward was expected (Meeter, Veldkamp & Jin, 2009). • Neuro-evolution of operant reward learning is also affected by surroundings. It can be fostered by environments where varying or exploring behavior (behavior novelty) is associated with low risk (Soltoggio & Jones, 2009).

8. References • Hernandez, P., & Ikkanda, Z. (2011). Applied behavior analysis. The Journal of the American Dental Association, 142(3), 281. • Lorenzetti, F. D., Mozzachiodi, R., Baxter, D. A., & Byrne, J. H. (2005). Classical and operant conditioning differentially modify the intrinsic properties of an identified neuron. Nature neuroscience, 9(1), 17-19. • Matson, J. L., Turygin, N. C., Beighley, J., Rieske, R., Tureck, K., & Matson, M. L. Applied behavior analysis in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Recent developments, strengths, and pitfalls. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, In Press, Corrected Proof. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2011.03.014 • Meeter, M., Veldkamp, R., & Jin, Y. (2009). Multiple memory stores and operant conditioning: A rationale for memory's complexity. Brain and cognition, 69(1), 200-208. • Ringdahl, J. E., Kopelman, T., & Falcomata, T. S. (2010). Applied Behavior Analysis and Its Application to Autism and Autism Related Disorders. Applied Behavior Analysis for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders, 15-32. • Soltoggio, A., & Jones, B. (2009). Novelty of behaviour as a basis for the neuro-evolution of operant reward learning. In Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference

9. Behavior Modification and Behavioral Therapy • B.F. Skinner was one of the most influential researchers in behavior modification • He is the founder of operant conditioning • Behavioral therapy is based on the notion of operant conditioning and is a therapeutic treatment, especially for those who suffer from anxiety (as well as other disorders) • This therapy focuses mainly on exposure and escape behaviors and trying to extinguish them • When a person is feeling anxious, they usually escape the situation, but behavioral therapy teaches the person to stay in the situation until the anxious feelings subside Jennifer Mislinski

10. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety • Parsons and Rizzo, 2007, explored outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias. • VRET (virtual reality exposure therapy) is a therapy that uses a computer simulation/virtual environment and immerses the user in a particular setting • The researchers collected 21 articles that used virtual reality treatment in their studies for people suffering from anxiety or other similar disorders (such as phobias) and meta analyzed the data. • After analyzing all of the data, Parsons and Rizzo, 2007 found that VRET is an effective way to treat those people suffering from anxiety, by reducing symptoms. Jennifer Mislinski

11. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety • Barlow, Cerny, Klosko, and Tassinari, 1990 looked at the effectiveness of Behavior Therapy and the medication alprazolam in people with Panic Disorder • The researchers selected participants that were between ages 18 and 65 and who were visiting the Phobia and Anxiety Disorders clinic at SUNY Albany. They also included participants who had mild to severe agoraphobic avoidance. • There was a total of four groups; a medication group (alprazolam), a placebo group, a behavior therapy group, and a waitlist group • 57 out of 69 initial subjects completed the study (12 dropped out and most came from the placebo group) Jennifer Mislinski

12. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety • Barlow, Cerny, Klosko, and Tassinari, 1990 discovered that over 85% of people who participated in the behavior therapy group were panic free after a 2 week period at the end of treatment • Those in the behavior therapy group did significantly better than those in the placebo or waiting list groups • The researchers also found that the medication alprazolam group was not significantly different than the behavior therapy. • This study shows that the combination of alprazolam and behavior therapy may possibly work better than any other types of therapy, but also that behavior therapy is an effective way to treat those with anxiety Jennifer Mislinski

13. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety • CBT is a combination of cognitive and behavioral therapy.. • Kendall and Southam-Gerow, 1996 reported a long-term follow up of CBT for anxiety-disordered youth. • Participants in the study were clients who completed treatment at the Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Clinic (CAADC) at Temple University at least two year prior to the study. • 36 girls and boys participated in the study • After assessing the children's well being, the researchers found that the adolescents had mostly maintained the gains they made in treatment 2-5 years earlier • The children were also successful in their maintenance of treatment Jennifer Mislinski

14. References • Kendall, P., & Southam-Gerow, M. (1996). Long-term follow-up of a cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disordered youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 724-730. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from the PsychInfo database. • Klosko, J., Barlow, D., Tassinari, R., & Cerny, J. (1990). A comparison of alprazolam and behavior therapy in treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 77-84. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from the PsychInfo database. • Parsons, T., & Rizzo, A. (2008). Affective outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias: A menta-analysis. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39, 250-261. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from the PsychInfo database. Jennifer Mislinski