Psychological Explanations of Criminal Behavior

1. Psychological Explanations of Criminal Behavior Developmental Pathways of Juvenile Delinquency

2. Moffitt’s theory on pathways to delinquency Patterson’s theory on pathways to delinquency Behaviour disorders in childhood and adolescence Social factors in delinquency in childhood and adolescence attachment Peers Poverty/Social class Family (parenting styles; abuse)

3. Developmental Theories • Age and Criminal Behaviour • A small number of individuals engage in persistent antisocial behaviour from an early age; • In adolescence, there is a temporary increase in the number of people involved in antisocial behaviour; and

4. Moffitt’s theory: there are 2 kinds of adolescent offenders

5. Developmental Theories • Age and Criminal Behaviour • What childhood factors predict delinquency? • At age 3 years • Measured more than 30 variables measuring the children’s behaviour and development • At age 15 years • Compared data at age 3 (predictor variables) with antisocial outcome at age 15 • Delinquent or not delinquent at age 15 years • Temperament, Externalizing problems, Low vocabulary, Poor social/interpersonal skills

6. Juvenile Offenders Childhood Onset (Lifecourse Persistent) Serious and persistent antisocial behaviour 3 – 5% of general population Adolescent Onset (Adolescent-Limited) 70% general population Moffitt’s explanation…2 kinds of offenders

8. The child who: Bites and hits at 4 with aggression problems Shoplifts and skips school at 10 Sells drugs and steals cars at age 16 Commits robbery at age 22 Commits fraud and child abuse at age 30 Different behaviours with same underlying concept Life-Course Persistent Offender

9. Life-Course Persistent: The Beginning Disrupted neuropsychological development e.g. drug & alcohol use during pregnancy; brain injuries, nutrition deprivation; abuse and neglect; inherited vulnerabilities) “Difficult” child impulsive, hyperactive, irritable Parents of “difficult” child lack resources to rear effectively Problematic child/environment interactions responds to new situations with same attitudes and behaviours Selects environments that support their delinquent behaviour.

10. Life-Course Persistent: Maintenance over the life course Cumulative consequences: Problem behaviour early in life, began a series of unfortunate consequences; snowball effect Contemporary consequences: Problem behaviour persists and causes current unfortunate consequences. E.g. temper/difficulty controlling anger Restricted behavioural repertoire Do not learn prosocial alternatives Learn to expect rejection Miss opportunities to acquire and practice prosocial and interpersonal skills at each stage of development. “Snares” maintain antisocial behaviour e.g. drug addiction, school dropout, teenage pregnancy

11. Adolescent-Limited Antisocial Behaviour Adolescent-Limited Offender are only delinquent during adolescence. Mimicry and reinforcement Cross-situational inconsistency At home, at school, with friends Temporal instability Temporary, mixed with good behaviour

12. Hypothesized different types of crime Adolescence-Limited: crimes that symbolize adult privilege, independence and control Life-course Persistent: Wider array of offences, more offences with victims

13. Why does delinquency increase in adolescence? Maturity Gap Biologically mature, yet without desired social opportunities--creates an angst—want to be more adult and independent Life-course persistent boys don’t appear to suffer much from the “maturity gap” Independent, have material things, sexual experience Adolescent-Limited Antisocial boys momentarily mimic them and join in their antisocial activities Antisocial behaviour is a way to respond to the maturity gap angst Adolescent-Limited: The Beginning

14. Hypothetical Reinforcers for Delinquency Include: • damaging the quality of intimacy and communication with parents • provoking responses from adults in positions of authority • finding ways to look older (tattoos; cigarettes, big spender with illegal profits) • risk taking (drinking and driving; risking pregnancy; shoplifting) • proving maturity and autonomy are strong personal motives for offending

15. Adolescent-LimitedWhy don’t all youths become antisocial? Some don’t suffer from “maturity gap” Mature later Have adult responsibilities and privileges Some don’t associate with delinquent group Alienated from the group and can’t join Religious and cultural associations Rural areas have lower adolescent crime rates

16. Adolescent-Limited: Desistence Why does antisocial behaviour stop? Respond to changing circumstances Behaviour now punishing, not rewarding Ruining chances to attain good job, family, education Able to change Less damaged by cumulative & contemporary consequences Strong social and educational skills They have an option out

17. Summary of Moffitt’s theory Life-course Persistent Antisocial Behaviour • Prosocial behaviour again • Flexible; can change • Have social and educational skills Non- delinquent childhood Maturity gap Mimic Lifetime- Persistent Antisocial boys Antisocial behaviour unrewarding with time • Difficult infant • Poor parental rearing • Cognitive difficulties Early Neuro-psychological Problems Childhood behavioural problems Antisocial behaviour maintained across lifespan Narrowing options for change Adolescent-Limited Antisocial Behaviour

18. Patterson’s theory – What did you read? What do you think?

19. Cumulative Disadvantage Difficult Temperament Academic Problems Withdrawal Poor Peer Relations Hyperactivity Aggressiveness Deviant peers AGE Pre-school Adolescence

20. Multiple Developmental Pathways Research strongly suggests that there are multiple developmental paths toward antisocial behavior (rather than the two-path theory originally developed by Moffitt). Complex behavior requires complex explanations

21. Developmental Antecedents Early Temperament Child’s emotional predisposition (i.e. stable pattern of interpreting and responding to environment). Might include: Negative emotionality: negative emotions frequent, intense and out of proportion to circumstances—anger, sad, anxiety Not prosocial: not having sympathy and concern for others Being daring: “sensation seeking”, risky activities Attention problems: can’t focus attention Verbal deficits: less able to listen, problem-solve, limited expressiveness, lowered reading ability Early Neuropsychological Difficulties E.g. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

22. Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): Recurrent pattern of angry irritable mood, argumentative and defiant behavior or vindictiveness in a child, toward anyone who is not a sibling lasting at least 6 months Loses temper often Angry and resentful Easily annoyed or touchy Argues with authority figures Refuses to comply with requests from authority figures or rules Deliberately annoys others Blames others for their mistakes or misbehaviors Is vindictive (at least twice in 6 months) Childhood Disorders (DSM-V)

23. Conduct Disorder (CD) :Persistent, repetitive pattern of violating basic rights of others and/or age-appropriate societal norms or rules, including: Aggression to People and Animals E.g., bullies, threatens, or intimidates Property destruction E.g., sets fires; destroys others property Deceitfulness or theft E.g., broken into property; lies for gain Serious violations of rules E.g., runs away before age 13; truant before age 13 Childhood-onset CD Display at least one symptom before age 10 usually male, aggressive, account for a disproportionate amount of illegal activity Very stable and persistent antisocial behavior over time Adolescent-onset CD Found in girls or boys Nothing before age 10 Not as much severity or as much psychopathology as the early-onset group less likely to commit violent offenses or persist as they get older Childhood Disorders (DSM-V)

24. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Inattention (6 or more symptoms - easily distracted, can’t sustain attention, does not appear to listen, loses things, no follow through) Hyperactivity and Impulsivity (6 of more symptoms – leaves situations where it is not expected, runs or climbs when it is inappropriate, can’t play quietly, talks excessively, interrupts, hard to wait their turn, “on the go”) Occurs in various settings Symptoms present before age 12 years Childhood Disorders (DSM-V)

25. ADHD, a disorder of interpersonal relationships – • ADHD children are perceived as annoying and aversive by other children (socially rejection) • They have strained family relationships • They struggle in school and have a lower academic achievement • As adults, they have lower occupational achievement and more interpersonal conflict • A large number of ADHD children self-report delinquent behaviours by early adolescence. They are more likely to develop Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder as adults • They are more likely to be physically injured

26. ETIOLOGY of Juvenile Delinquency:Interaction of multiple risk factors No single cause; multiple influences (biopsychosocial stressors or vulnerabilities): Psychobiological variables Genetic, cognitive deficits, temperament, hormones, neurotransmitters Neuropsychological brain deficits, learning disabilities, fetal alcohol syndrome, ADHD Parent-child interaction child rearing, family size, poor supervision, modeling – corporal punishment Familial traits Mental illness, physical illness, alcoholism, marital discord Moral reasoning deficits Social-cultural violence, poverty, social class Schools / peers peer pressure, bullying, modeling Traumatic stress Abuse

27. Parent-Child Relationships • Think of an adult who shows difficulty in establishing warm, friendly, enduring interpersonal relationships… • Lack the ability to form social attachments, tend to be egocentric and uncaring. • Temperament contributes, but social conditioning factors are more important. • Parental influences operates along two dimensions: • relationship dimension (attachment; arouse hostile emotions which can lead to antisocial behavior) • structuring dimension – parents’ role is to teach and instill prosocial norms, values, beliefs, and skills. Poor modeling, monitoring, and inconsistent disciplining crucial.

28. Attachment • Bond of love between parents and child pivotal to normal development. • Failure of attachment to develop in infancy • The rupture of attachment by abandonment, death, divorce • Contamination of attachment with excessive anger or anxiety • The atrophy of the bond through neglect

29. Attachment: Learning to Care • Look to the family context and attachment to parental figures as the prototype for all future social relationships • Degrees of attachment: secure and independent to insecure and fearful • Bowlby • separation anxiety • Consistent and nurturing caregiving • Provide the infant the security needed to explore the environment and develop independence. • Caregiver “safe haven” – first 2 years critical

30. Attachment theory – Ainsworth pursued Bowlby’s work Secure attachment (Prefers parent to stranger, Trust, Security) Ambivalent attachment or Anxious-Resistant (Very distressed when parent leaves but does not seem soothed by parent when they return, Wary, Lack of trust) Avoidant attachment or Anxious-Avoidant (Strangers or parents, who cares!, Avoids caregivers, Assumed to be a result of neglect or abuse) Disorganized attachment (Fear and comfort, Cling and avoid, Not sure how to react or what to do, Assumed to be the result of inconsistent parenting or abuse)

31. Attachment & Delinquency • Disruptions of attachment bond: • Detachment by parent = length and frequency lead child to stop attaching (to anyone); avoid any risk of allowing hearts to be broken again; Moffit’s LCP offender in the making. • High conflict families with severely stressed parents = insecure attachment

32. Attachment • Successful peer relations related to positive attachments to parents. • Moment of detachment – normal, but may give rise to adolescent limited delinquency. • Attachment to teachers (any significant adult) related to non-delinquency/attachment. • They seek to attach, must give them the opportunity (those guys who make prison staff their new family)

33. Family Factors: Parenting Styles The “difficult infant” and parenting (Terrie Moffitt) Early behaviour problems can drain parents, and parents may become less involved in socializing/teaching child Behaviour of hyperactive, temperamental children may be improved under firm, consistent discipline However, parents and children often resemble one another in temperament The hyperactive, temperamental child under inconsistent, harsh, impatient parenting may become worse. What about the parents who do not have the skills or the resources to raise these children….

34. The Coercion Model (Gerald Patterson) Children learn to use innocuous aversive tactics (whining, arguing, crying) to terminate conflicts with family (negative reinforcement) Parent makes demand experienced as aversive by child Child’s noxious response (whining, yelling) is experienced as aversive by parent Parent relinquishes; Child more likely to use similar tactics in future. Family Factors: Parenting Style

35. Parents/caregivers of delinquency prone children reinforce such behaviors and not prosocial ones. Inconsistent, harsh, physical punishment by parents strongly correlated with delinquency. Research concludes that although harsh physical punishment produces some conformity in the short term, over time it tends to increase the probability of violent delinquency and crime. Cycle of violence…aggressive prone kids become aggressive prone parents. Family Factors: Parenting Style

36. Poor Disciplinary practices • Lack of parental supervision (Loeber, 1990) • Inconsistent discipline (McCord, 1979) • Harsh physical punishment (Straus, 1991) • Inconsistent reinforcement & punishment on the whim of the parent (Bartol, 1999)

37. Family Factors: Parenting Style Emotional abuse and neglect is also important in the development of delinquency Maternal (and paternal) warmth contributes to positive long-term outcomes (think attachment) “nurturance hypothesis” = considerate attention, emotional investment, and positive behavioral management by parents important in the development of a socially competent and psychologically healthy child who is likely to be resistant to antisocial influences.

38. Family Factors: Child Abuse Child Abuse Cycle of Violence Hypothesis (Cathy Widom) Experiencing violence as a child predisposes the individual to becoming violent as an adult. But most abused children do not become violent Empirical Support for the Cycle of Violence Being a victim of childhood abuse and neglect increases the likelihood of arrest as a juvenile by over 50%, as an adult by 38%, and for a violent crime by 50%. More mental health problems among abused. More likely to have attempted suicide and to have met the criteria for antisocial personality disorder. Some research suggests that up to 92% of juvenile female offenders reported that they had been subjected to some form of emotional, physical, or sexual abuse. 25% reported they had been shot or stabbed one or more times.

39. Poverty/Social Class Social class and poverty been major focus in criminology for over a century. Theories predict that lower social classes have greater likelihood of involvement in criminal behavior. Little doubt poverty strongly connected to persistent, violent offending as measured by official, victimization, and self-report data. One of the most robust predictors of adolescent violence for both males and females Predicts being both a victim and offender. Why? Does being poor cause antisocial behavior?

40. Strong correlation between low SES and delinquency does not mean that poverty causes or inevitably leads to serious delinquency. Not only inequities in resources, but also: discrimination, racism family disruption unsafe living conditions joblessness social isolation limited social support targeted by police; more likely to be incarcerated Disadvantaged youths more like to have had inadequate schooling, higher school dropout rates, unemployed carry a firearm to be victimized, and a witness to a variety of violent acts. Poverty/Social Class