Recap – Kant Weaknesses

1. Recap – Kant Weaknesses Over the last two lessons we covered the weaknesses and issues with Kantian ethics, can you summarise them on your whiteboards?

2. Lesson Objectives • Recap and revise Kantian ethics. • Compare Kantian ethics to Utilitarianism. • Look at how we can effectively discuss Kantian ethics in exam questions.

3. Comparison To Utilitarianism What are the good and bad things about Kant in comparison to Utilitarianism? Make sure you are ready to give clear reasons why.

4. Types of Exam Question The specification for Kantian Ethics states you need to know: • Immanuel Kant’s account of what is meant by a ‘good will’. • The distinction between acting in accordance with duty and acting out of duty. • The distinction between hypothetical imperatives and categorical imperatives. • The first formulation of the categorical imperative (including the distinction between a contradiction in conception and a contradiction in will). • The second formulation of the categorical imperative. Issues, including: • clashing/competing duties • not all universalisable maxims are distinctly moral; not all non-universalisable maxims are immoral • the view that consequences of actions determine their moral value • Kant ignores the value of certain motives, eg love, friendship, kindness • morality is a system of hypothetical, rather than categorical, imperatives (Philippa Foot). This means 3/5/12 mark questions could come from any of these areas. 12 markers could also ask you to compare a particular element of Kantian Ethics to another moral theory (like Utilitarianism) looking for similarities / differences.

5. Essay Questions Essay questions on the other hand, are always broader in scope, asking you to: • Assess a theory as a whole. • Compare two or more theories to decide which is the most effective. • Examine whether or not a particular element of a theory serves it’s purpose. For example: • How effective is Deontological Ethics at moral decision making? • Is Kantian Ethics the most effective way of making moral decisions? • Is the categorical imperative useful for making moral decisions?

6. Essay Questions Pick 3 key points you would include in this essay, make a brief note of them and a short explanation of how you would link them to the question: How effective is Deontological Ethics at moral decision making?

7. Essay Questions Pick 3 key points you would include in this essay, make a brief note of them and a short explanation of how you would link them to the question: Is Kantian Ethics the most effective way of making moral decisions?

8. Essay Questions Pick 3 key points you would include in this essay, make a brief note of them and a short explanation of how you would link them to the question: Is the categorical imperative useful for making moral decisions?

9. Essay Questions – Focusing on Analysis Explaining a theory should only take up a small amount of your essay – enough that you can discuss it effectively. Anything else you need to explain you can do as part of your evaluation. If you are spending more than a page at the start of your essay explaining the key elements of a theory you are doing it wrong. A good example from last year looked like this: Deontology is an ethical theory that claims that actions are right or wrong in themselves, not depending on their consequences and that we have a duty not to do things which are wrong in themselves. To act out of duty is to do what is right, regardless of feelings or desires. Kant believes moral duties are discovered by reason and this rationality should be used when making moral decisions. Kant sets out two versions of his categorical imperative (something that should be followed regardless of desires) which allow the operation of reason in moral matters. The first formulation of the Categorical Imperative states: “Act only according to that maxim (general rule) by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” In other words, the test that will tell us what moral rules all of us should obey, is whether or not the rule in question can be universalised (acted on by all those in similar circumstances) without contradiction. If the rule cannot be universalised because it causes a fundamental problem (contradiction in conception), or because it is not something any rational being would want (contradiction in will) – it fails the first formulation of the categorical imperative. The second formulation of the categorical imperative states: “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.” According to Kant, human beings are rational beings, and as such they have an inherent value: they are ends in themselves, counting equally one with another. Their value is intrinsic not instrumental. You should never simply use people to further your own goals. Rather, you ought always to respect other people’s desires and goals.

10. Essay Questions – Focusing on Analysis When analysing / evaluating an argument or idea, you should be careful to make sure it relates to the question. • Which of the following answers do you think accomplishes this the best? • Can you work out what the question is? If I must tell the truth, I break a promise; and if I keep the promise, I must tell a lie. There is a clash between the two duties… Meaning that Kantian Ethics is not a very good way of making moral decisions. Meaning that we find ourselves in a kind of moral stalemate, in which no moral decision can be made, or to a situation in which I may well regard doing my duty as being equivalent to doing wrong. This goes against our natural intuitions even if Kant would have no issue with regarding doing our duty as doing wrong. Meaning that we find ourselves in a kind of moral stalemate, in which no moral decision can be made, or to a situation in which I may well regard doing my duty as being equivalent to doing wrong. This goes against our natural intuitions even if Kant would have no issue with regarding doing our duty as doing wrong and as such it could be argued that Kantian Deontology is not a good basis on which to make moral decisions.

11. Essay Questions – Focusing on Analysis WAGOLL: Is Kantian Deontology a good basis on which to make moral decisions? All in all, it is not obvious that maxims which can be universalised consistently are necessarily moral and ought to be done, nor that maxims which cannot be universalised consistently are necessarily immoral and ought not to be done. This is a fatal flaw for Kantian Deontology because the theory already doesn’t give concrete duties to follow and if the framework for calculating these duties is compromised then the whole theory as a whole is in jeopardy. It would leave us with no option but to state that deontology is not a good basis for making moral decisions.

12. Introductions / Conclusions An introduction should make it explicitly clear what you are going to argue in an essay and how you are going to argue it. IT SHOULD NOT BE VAGUE. The mark-scheme asks for clear intent – here is the time to show it: Is Kantian Deontology a good basis on which to make moral decisions? This essay will argue that whilst Kantian Deontology has reasons for which it could be considered a “good” basis on which to make moral decisions, it is flawed in the application of the categorical imperative and the problem of duties clashing. Despite there being some attempt to respond to these issues, it is the authors opinion that there has been no real way of overcoming the problems. This essay will therefore conclude that Kantian Ethics is not a good basis on which to make moral decisions.

13. Introductions / Conclusions Write an introduction to the following question referencing any points you think you would use in the essay: How effective is Deontological Ethics at moral decision making?

14. Introductions / Conclusions How effective is Deontological Ethics at moral decision making? • Swap whiteboards with the person next to you. Check to see if they have included the following: • Clear understanding of what is being asked – have they referenced the question somewhere in their introduction. • Clear intent – is it clear what they will be arguing? • Clear method – is it clear what ideas they will be using to support their argument? • Have they done any of the following: • Vagueness – Just mentioned arguments without it being clear how they will fit into the essay? • Pointless facts – Have they included a lot of random information about the theory without stating why it’s important? • Indecisiveness – Have they left it open as to where the essay will be going?

15. Introductions / Conclusions Write an introduction to the following question referencing any points you think you would use in the essay: Is Kantian Ethics the most effective way of making moral decisions?

16. Introductions / Conclusions Is Kantian Ethics the most effective way of making moral decisions? • Swap whiteboards with the person next to you. Check to see if they have included the following: • Clear understanding of what is being asked – have they referenced the question somewhere in their introduction. • Clear intent – is it clear what they will be arguing? • Clear method – is it clear what ideas they will be using to support their argument? • Have they done any of the following: • Vagueness – Just mentioned arguments without it being clear how they will fit into the essay? • Pointless facts – Have they included a lot of random information about the theory without stating why it’s important? • Indecisiveness – Have they left it open as to where the essay will be going?

17. Introductions / Conclusions Similar to your introduction – a conclusion should NOT BE VAGUE. It should be clear, given what you have covered what your conclusion will say and there should be no surprise for the reader involved. You should avoid introducing any new information and instead use it as a final, succinct way of answering the question. Is Kantian Deontology a good basis on which to make moral decisions? To conclude, Kantian Deontology has some strengths when it comes to making moral decisions. It makes a sharp distinction between duty and desire so people don’t get the two mistakenly intertwined. It also accounts for motive and intentions in moral decision making. Unfortunately, the theory also faces some damning criticisms such as the issues with practical application which is struggles to overcome. Also, there is the issue of clashing/conflicting duties which is not combatted adequately by W.D Ross, who undermines the role of rationality in Kantian Ethics. Therefore despite it’s strengths, Kantian Deontology is not a good basis on which to make moral decisions.

18. Introductions / Conclusions Write a conclusion to the following question referencing any points you think you would have used in the essay: Is the categorical imperative useful for making moral decisions?

19. Introductions / Conclusions Is the categorical imperative useful for making moral decisions? • Swap whiteboards with the person next to you. Check to see if they have included the following: • Answered the question – Does their conclusion contain a clear answer to the question? • Clear intent – Have they explained how they came to this conclusion? • Clear method – If they’ve mentioned an opposing view have they made it clear why they’ve shown it’s not correct? • Have they done any of the following: • Vagueness – Have they just listed arguments / points they’ve covered? • New Information – Have they started to explain an argument as if they’d not mentioned it before? • Indecisiveness – Have they not given a clear opinion on where they fall in relation to the question?

20. Mini-Test Answer the following questions on paper as best you can, you have 15 minutes: What is a hypothetical imperative? (3 marks) What is the second formulation of the categorical imperative? (3 marks) Explain how we should use the first formulation of the categorical imperative to make moral decisions (5 marks) Explain the difference between acting in accordance with duty and acting out of duty according to Kant (5 marks)

21. Answer the following questions on paper as best you can, you have 15 minutes: What is a hypothetical imperative? (3 marks) What is the second formulation of the categorical imperative? (3 marks) Explain how we should use the first formulation of the categorical imperative to make moral decisions (5 marks) Explain the difference between acting in accordance with duty and acting out of duty according to Kant (5 marks)

22. If anything in your notes doesn’t make sense, or you’re missing anything – now’s your chance to ask me! Task selector(choose wisely!) If you’ve done all this, do the same tasks for utilitarianism!