Psychological Foundations

1. Psychological Foundations States of Consciousness

2. Consciousness and Biological Rhythms • Consciousness is awareness of internal and external stimuli • Biological rhythms are internal rhythms of biological activity • A circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of 24 hours such as our sleep wake cycle

3. The Biological Clock

4. Sleep Disruptions • Jet lag: collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment • Rotating shift work: work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis • Sleep debt: result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

5. Consequences of Insufficient Sleep

6. What is Sleep? • Low levels of physical activity • Reduced sensory awareness. • Regulated by homeostatic and circadian mechanisms • Patterns of activity of the brain measured by electroencephalography (EEG) shown at right

7. Areas of the Brain involved in sleep • Pineal gland secretes melatonin • Pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone

8. Why We Sleep • Adaptive Function – Sleep conserves energy or keeps us safe from predation but little research supports these ideas • Cognitive Function – Sleep is necessary for cognitive function and memory formation

9. REM and NREM Sleep Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: • Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids • Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. • Non-REM (NREM) sleep is subdivided into three stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves

10. Sleep Stages

12. Stages of NREM Sleep • Stage 1 sleep: first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep • Stage 2 sleep: second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles • Stage 3 sleep: third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves

13. Why Do We Dream? Some Theories • Activation-synthesis theory: Dreams are electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories • Continual-activation theory: During REM sleep, the unconscious part of the brain is busy processing procedural memory • Threat-simulation theory: Dreaming repeatedly simulates potential threatening events, thus enhancing the mechanisms required for efficient threat avoidance • Expectation-fulfillment theory: Dreaming discharges emotional arousals that haven’t been expressed during the day

14. Sleep Disorders: Insomnia Insomnia: consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week for at least one month’s time Treatments: • Exercise • Limiting stimulant use • Cognitive behavioral therapy

15. Sleep Disorders: Sleep Apnea • Sleep apnea is when a sleeper’s breathing stops for 10–20 seconds or longer multiple times in an hour • Symptoms: snoring and fatigue • Treatment: Continuous Positive Air Pressure (CPAP) machines shown below

16. Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy Someone with narcolepsy cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times Treatment: Amphetamines

17. Substance Abuse Disorder Substance Abuse Disorder: addictive disorder where the person has a compulsive pattern of drug use • Physical dependence involves changes in normal bodily functions • The user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use • Tolerance occurs when a person requires more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses • Psychological dependence is an emotional need for the drug

18. Types of Psychoactive Drugs

19. Depressants • Alcohol • Suppress central nervous system activity • Agonists of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system

20. Stimulants • Cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, caffeine • increase overall levels of neural activity • agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system

21. Opioids • Heroin, morphine, methadone, codeine • Decrease pain • Naturally, the body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria • Extremely high potential for abuse

22. Hallucinogens • Marijuana, psylocybin (shrooms), mescaline (peyote), LSD. • Result in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences • Impact different neurotransmitters

23. Hypnosis • Hypnosis: state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli • Dissociation view: dissociated state of consciousness • Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis: people perform a social role

24. Meditation • Clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus

25. Practice Question • Compare the effects of depressants with those of insufficient sleep

26. Quick Review • What are consciousness and circadian rhythms? • What are disruptions in biological rhythms, including sleep debt? • What are areas of the brain and hormone secretions involved in sleep? • What theories explain the function of sleep? • What are the stages of sleep? What is the difference between REM and non-REM sleep?

27. More Quick Review • What theories explain why we dream? • What are the symptoms and treatments for insomnia, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy? • How are substance abuse disorders are diagnosed? • How do depressants, stimulants, opioids, and hallucinogens impact the brain and body? How are they similar and different? • What are hypnosis and meditation?