AP Unit 0: Summer Packet

1. AP Unit 0:Summer Packet Lundquist

2. Chemical Foundations Unit 0.1

3. Matter • takes up space, has mass, exhibits inertia • composed of atoms only 100 or so different types

4. Matter • Most reactions are reversible

5. Chemistry • The study of matter, energy, and the changes between the two • Central science • EVERYTHING relates to chemistry MHS

6. Scientific Method • Good Experimental design is key • Lots of repetitions • Few contaminants • Theory – explain WHY • Theory of evolution: why we all share the same genetic makeup but are different • Law – something that consistently happens • Law of gravity: everything falls down

7. Scientific Laws in Chemistry Law of conservation of mass Law of conservation of energy First law of thermodynamics Energyrxt=Energyprod • Massreactant = Massproducts • The reason reactions must be balanced Energy can not be created or destroyed only rearranged into various forms. Even matter is simply an organized form of energy.

8. Units of measurement Metric System (SI Units) English system A lb, a gallon, a calorie have NOTHING in common • A gram is how many molecules are in a mole of hydrogen • 1oC is the amount of energy 1g water has. • A joule is the amount of energy it takes to raise that by 1oc

9. Base Units

10. Powers of 10

11. Derived Units Volume • Amount of space a substance occupies • Unit is Liters (L) • Commonly used milliliters (mL)

12. Mass and Weight Mass Weight A force (N) The response of mass to gravity Varies with altitude – the closer you are to the source the stronger the pull • Grams (g) • Resistance to changes in motion (inertia) • Amount of matter present • VIDEO Though you will hear them interchangeably they are NOT the same.

13. Measurements Accuracy Precision Reproducibility How close your values are to each other • correctness • How close a value is to an Accepted value

14. Precision • The degree to which a measurement is known • What a devise is rated for • On analog devised always report ±10% • Always go 1 place past what a devise is rated for

15. Significant Figures • What values are KNOWN • Help define the precision of the measurements • Counting numbers = ∞ • There are 3 sheep • known values = ∞ • 1 mole is 6.022 x 1023 • ALL others must follow these rules: • Non-zeroes are significant • 49 = 2 sig fig • 523 = 3 sig fig • Zeros are placeholders • 100 = 1 sig fig • 0.047 = 2 sig fig • Zero can be significant if: • It is sandwiched • 101 = 3 sig figs • 60200 = 3 sig fig • It is at the end & after a decimal • 0.003020 = 4 sig fig • 100.00200 = 8 sig fig

16. Using Sig Figs Adding & Subtracted Multiplying & Dividing Carry out the math Round to the LEAST number of sig. figs 100. x 0.05 = 5 ≈ 5.0 • Carry out the math • Round to the LEAST number of decimal places 100. + 0.50 = 100.50 ≈100

17. AP significant figures ALWAYS REPORT 3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The AP test will have 1 point testing your knowledge of sig. figs. Other wise they will accept answers that are ±1 sig fig. All most every question has 3 sig. fig. Therefore if you report with 3 sig fig always you’re most likely to get it correct.

18. Dimensional Analysis • Stringing proportions along so that the units cancel out • Works because proportions are reversible

19. Temperature • Fahrenheit • Based off the brine water • Not representative of kinetic energy • Celsius • Based off pure water • Not representative of kinetic energy • Kelvin • Based off kinetic energy in matter

20. Density • How compact the atoms of a substance are • Dense objects sink below those with lower densities • Temperature dependent

21. States of MatterNOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs) Solids • STRONG IMFs • Hold molecules/atoms as close together as possible • Hold a shape • Have a volume (can’t get closer together) • Movement is vibrational only

22. States of MatterNOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs) Liquid • strong IMFs • Hold molecules/atoms close together but they are able to move around one another • Have a volume (can’t get closer together) • Movement doesn’t allow a shape • Movement is proportional to temperature

23. States of MatterNOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs) Gas • NO IMFs • molecules/atoms have NO attraction and therefore spread out (2nd law of thermo.) • Space between them is INFINIANT compared to their own volume (can be compressed) • Movement is proportional to temperature

24. Vocabulary Atom Molecule / Compound 2 or more atoms • Smallest unit of matter

25. Vocabulary Pure substance • Any substance with a uniform composition

26. Vocabulary Mixture 2 or more pure substances

27. Vocabulary Homogeneous Mixture Heterogeneous Mixture Visibly distinguishable parts Oil & water Underwater lakes • Equal distribution of particles throughout • Air • Milk • Alloys

28. Separation of Mixturesbased on physical properties Filtration Fractional Crystallization

29. Separation of Mixturesbased on physical properties Distillation Chromatography

30. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Unit 0.2

31. History • Blacksmithing used ore since 1000BCE • Greek philosophers proposed that everything was made of the 4 “elements” • Democritus proposed that there was an invisible component of stuff called “atomos”

32. History Alchemy for the next 2000 years • Constant pursuit of Au • Lots of BAD science • Based on belief and mythology • But some good science • Developed a structure for the scientific method • Theory development & peer review

33. History Robert Boyle (16thcentery) • First chemistto perform numerical experiments on gases and changes in volume • First to develop an theory of elements

34. History Combustion • Stahl – burnt objects release “phlogiston” which saturated the air and puts the fire out • Priestley – dephlogisticated air is actually oxygen an element

35. History • Priestley’s discovery lead to an explosion in combustion research (hahaha) • CO2, H2, N2, and O2 are discovered • Lavoisier • Defined combustion (when something burns in air and produces 1+ oxides) • Writes first chemistry textbook • Published the law of conservation of mass • Executed during the French revolution because he was a tax collector The Law of Conservation of Mass Matter can not be created nor destroyed

36. History Dalton • Proposed the law of definite proportions • Went on to develop the atomic theory of matter The Law of Definite Proportions A compound always contains the same ratio of its elements

37. History The Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements combine to form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers. Dalton • Also proposed the law of multiple proportions • Elements form in whole number ratios, different compounds are those elements in differentratios

38. History Dalton’s Atomic Theory • All matter is made of atoms. • Indivisible • indestructible • All the atoms of an element are identical • in both weight and chemical properties. • Each element is unique • Compounds are formed by the combination of different atoms in the ratio of small whole numbers. • A chemical reaction involves only the rearrangement of atoms; • atoms are not created / destroyed

39. History & Now Dalton’s atomic theory • Modifications: • Atoms can be destroyed (Manhattan project) • Atoms of a element do differ mass (known as isotopes – some have more neutrons) • There are things smaller then an atom (p+, n0, e-)

40. History Gay-Lussac • Found that if you heat a gas it expands Avogadro • Hypothesized, using Gay-Lussac’s work, that the more gas you had the greater the volume it would occupy • Was ignored for 5 decades  People started look into the atom

41. History J. J. Thomson • Using the newly discovered vaccuum • Passed an electrical current a “ray” was made at the cathode (-- end) • Called it a cathode ray • Ray was attracted to (+) poles and repelled by (-) ones

42. History J. J. Thomson • Found ALL metals produced this ray • SO all matter contained this (-) thing, now called an electron • Found that the charge was -1.76 x 108C/g • Since metals are neutral there had to be something positive to cancel it out • Plum Pudding Model

43. History Millikan • Found the mass of an electron using Oil Electrons Mass = 9.11 × 10−31 kg.

44. History Becquerel • Found that substances coated in U produced an image without light • Coined the term radioactive • The U was releasing material • 3 types (discovered later) • Alpha • Beta • Gamma g

45. History Rutherford • Tested the plumb pudding model • Set up U to release a particles at Au foil • Since the a’s were so big they should blast through the foil

46. History Rutherford • Several particles were deflected • Reasoned that there had to be a dense core to the atom • Was positive • Developed the nuclear model • Most of the atom must be empty space

47. HURRAY NO MORE HISTORY TODAY!!!

48. Modern Atomic Structure Elements • Anything made out of only one type of atom • 92 natural, everything else is manmade • All matter is made of them, just different combinations • Compounds – combinations of 2+ elements • Molecules – 2+ atoms

49. Atomic Structure

50. Atomic Symbols • Element name • Atomic number (Z) • AKA nuclear charge • Symbol • 1 upper case, 0-2 lower case • Average atomic mass • Average of every known atom • Weighted average • Atomic mass (A) • Generally rounded for Isotope notation IsotopeNotation