1 / 77

Chapter 5

Chapter 5. Long-Term Memory. Chapter Introduction. working memory long-term memory episodic memory semantic memory procedural memory encoding retrieval autobiographical memory. Encoding in Long-Term Memory. Levels of processing Craik & Lockhart (1972)

selima
Download Presentation

Chapter 5

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript

  1. Chapter 5 Long-Term Memory

  2. Chapter Introduction • working memory • long-term memory • episodic memory • semantic memory • procedural memory • encoding • retrieval • autobiographical memory

  3. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • Levels of processing • Craik & Lockhart (1972) • Levels-of-processing approach/depth-of-processing approach—argues that deep, meaningful processing of information leads to more accurate recall than shallow, sensory kinds of processing. • In general, people achieve a deeper level of processing when they extract more meaning from a stimulus.

  4. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • Levels of processing • Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material • Deeper levels of processing should produce better recall. • meaning vs. physical appearance • distinctiveness • elaboration • Deep processing also enhances memory for faces.

  5. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • Levels of processing • Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect • self-reference effect • Representative research • Rogers and coauthors (1977) • visual characteristics • acoustic characteristics • semantic characteristics • self-reference instructions • meta-analysis

  6. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • Levels of processing • Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect • Participants' failure to follow instructions • Foley and coauthors (1999) • Participants sometimes use self-reference even when instructed to use shallow processing. • The extent of the self-reference effect may be underestimated.

  7. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • Levels of processing • Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect • Factors responsible for the self-reference effect • The "self" provides a rich set of cues. • Self-reference instructions encourage people to consider how their personal traits are connected with one another (elaboration). • Material associated with the self is rehearsed more frequently.

  8. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • encoding-specificity principle • Recall is better if the context during retrieval is similar to the context during encoding. • When the two contexts do not match, you are more likely to forget the items.

  9. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • Research on Encoding Specificity • Marian and Fausey (2006) • bilingual English/Spanish speakers • stories and questions (in either English or Spanish) • match or mismatch of story and question languages

  10. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • Research on Encoding Specificity • Marian and Fausey (2006) (continued) • People were relatively accurate if they had heard the story and answered the questions in the same language. • People were less accurate if they heard the story in one language and answered the questions in a different language.

  11. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • Research on Encoding Specificity • Different kinds of memory tasks • recall task vs. recognition task • real-life vs. laboratory • short delay vs. long delay • Encoding specificity is typically strong in recall, real-life, long-delay situations. • Physical versus mental context

  12. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity • Encoding specificity can override level of processing. • Bransford and coauthors (1979) • various levels-of-processing tasks during encoding • test with rhyming task

  13. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity • Bransford and coauthors (1979) (continued) • People perform better on rhyming test if they had originally performed the shallow-encoding task, rather than the deep-encoding task.

  14. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity • Bransford and coauthors (1979) (continued) • Semantic processing is effective only if the retrieval conditions also emphasize deeper, more meaningful features.

  15. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle • Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity • To determine how to store information, we need to figure out the characteristics of the retrieval task.

  16. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • emotion • mood • We typically remember pleasant stimuli more accurately than other stimuli. • We typically recall material more accurately if our mood matches the emotional nature of the material, an effect called mood congruence.

  17. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Memory for Items Differing in Emotion • Pollyanna Principle—Pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items. • More accurate recall for pleasant items. • list of words: pleasant, neutral, unpleasant • pleasant > unpleasant > neutral • Balch (2006) and Demonstration 5.2

  18. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Memory for Items Differing in Emotion • More accurate recall for pleasant items. (continued) • Waring and Kensinger (2011) • photos of stimuli judged to be positive, negative, or neutral • photo backgrounds • recognition test

  19. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Memory for Items Differing in Emotion • More accurate recall for pleasant items. (continued) • Waring and Kensinger (2011) • recognition of neutral stimuli substantially lower than positive or negative • stimulus/background tradeoffs • memory for real-life events

  20. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Memory for Items Differing in Emotion • More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli. • Do people remember commercials less accurately when they are associated with violent media?

  21. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Memory for Items Differing in Emotion • More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli. • Bushman (1998) • significantly better recall for commercials that had appeared in the nonviolent film • Anger and violence in a program typically reduce memory accuracy for information in a commercial.

  22. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Memory for Items Differing in Emotion • Over time, unpleasant memories fade more than pleasant memories. • Walker and coauthors (1997) • personal events; pleasantness and intensity ratings • changes in pleasantness ratings over time

  23. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Memory for Items Differing in Emotion • Over time, unpleasant memories fade more than pleasant memories. • Walker and coauthors (1997) (continued) • positivity effect • What about people with a tendency toward depression?

  24. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Mood Congruence • mood congruence—People tend to recall material more accurately if it is congruent with their current mood.

  25. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Mood Congruence • Murray and colleagues (1999) • students with tendencies toward depression vs. students without depressive tendencies • positive- and negative-trait words; recall task

  26. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Mood Congruence • Murray and colleagues (1999) (continued) • The nondepressed individuals recalled a greater overall percentage of the words than did the depression-prone individuals. • The nondepressed students recalled a significantly greater percentage of positive words than negative words.

  27. Encoding in Long-Term Memory • In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory • Mood Congruence • Murray and colleagues (1999) (continued) • The depression-prone students recalled a slightly greater percentage of negative words than positive words. • In general, nondepressed people typically recall more positive than negative material. In contrast, depression-prone people tend to recall more negative material.

  28. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks • Definitions and Examples • Explicit Memory Tasks • recall • recognition

  29. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks • Definitions and Examples • Implicit Memory Tasks • assesses memory indirectly • memory revealed without conscious effort to remember • word completion • repetition priming task

  30. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks • Representative Research • Even if people cannot remember stimuli when they are tested using an explicit memory task, they may remember the stimuli when tested using an implicit memory task. • dissociation effects

  31. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks • Representative Research • Example • On an explicit memory task, people typically recall more words if they have used deep levels of processing to encode them. • However, on an implicit memory test, semantic and perceptual encoding may produce similar memory scores, or people may even score lower if they had used semantic encoding.

  32. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks • Representative Research • Example (continued) • Therefore, depth of processing has a large positive effect on memory scores on Test A (an explicit memory task), but depth of processing has no effect or even a negative effect on memory scores on Test B (an implicit memory task).

  33. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks • Representative Research • The research on implicit memory illustrates that people often know more than they can reveal in actual recall.

  34. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Individuals with Amnesia • amnesia • retrograde amnesia—loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain damage • anterograde amnesia—loss of the ability to form memories for events that have occurred after brain damage

  35. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Individuals with Amnesia • hippocampus • H.M. • Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) • presented a list of words to individuals with anterograde amnesia • explicit memory tasks • implicit memory tasks

  36. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Expertise • The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise • In general, researchers have found a strong positive correlation between knowledge about an area and memory performance in that area. • People who are expert in one area may not display outstanding general memory skills. • Memory experts typically do not receive exceptional scores on tests of intelligence.

  37. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Expertise • Own-Ethnicity Bias • You are generally more accurate in identifying members of your own ethnic group than members of another ethnic group.

  38. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Expertise • Own-Ethnicity Bias • The own-ethnicity bias is related to expertise, because people typically have more opportunities to interact with individuals from their own ethnic group, rather than other ethnic groups. Expertise can develop with frequent experiences and interactions. • Faces representing your own ethnic group acquire distinctiveness.

  39. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Expertise • Own-Ethnicity Bias • research with different ethnic groups • research in the United States, Europe, and Great Britain • Walker and Hewstone (2006) • White or South Asian British high school students • altered photographs on a continuum from "South Asian" to "White" • same/different task

  40. Retrieval in Long-Term Memory • Expertise • Own-Ethnicity Bias • Walker and Hewstone (2006) (continued) • The British White students made more accurate judgments for White faces than for South Asian faces. In contrast, the British South Asian students were equally accurate for both kinds of faces. • role of contact • overcoming own-ethnicity bias? • own-age bias

  41. Autobiographical Memory • autobiographical memory—memory for events and issues related to yourself • ecological validity

  42. Autobiographical Memory • Characteristics of Autobiographical Memory • Although we sometimes make errors, our memory is often accurate for a variety of information (Theme 2). • When people do make mistakes, these mistakes generally concern peripheral details and specific information about commonplace events, rather than central information about important events.

  43. Autobiographical Memory • Characteristics of Autobiographical Memory • Our memories often blend together information from a variety of sources; we actively construct a unified memory at the time of retrieval.

  44. Autobiographical Memory • Schemas and Autobiographical Memory • schema—general knowledge or expectation based on past experiences • consistency bias—tendency to exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint

  45. Autobiographical Memory • Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring • source monitoring—trying to identify the origin of a particular memory • Marsh and colleagues (1997) • open-ended discussion • later identify idea as one's own or someone else's • accurate self-monitoring • "wishful thinking bias" • source monitoring failures

  46. Autobiographical Memory • Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring • reality monitoring—trying to identify whether an event really occurred or was imagined

  47. Autobiographical Memory • Flashbulb Memories • flashbulb memory—memory for the circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising and emotionally arousing event • Many people believe that they can accurately recall all the minor details about what they were doing at the time of this event.

  48. Autobiographical Memory • Flashbulb Memories • In reality, people make numerous errors in recalling details of national events, even though they claimed that their memories for these events were very vivid.

More Related