Chapter 2 METHODOLOGY

1. Chapter 2METHODOLOGY

2. Chapter 2METHODOLOGY

3. Methodology This chapter starts with an introductory paragraphs telling what the chapter contains. It provides a summary of pertinent details sufficient to justify the conclusion of the study. If effectively written, this part of the study will enable the readers to assess the appropriateness of the method, the reliability and the validity of the results as well as permit experienced investigators to replicate the study if they desire.

4. Research Design • Historical Method • Descriptive Method • Developmental Method • Case and Field Method • Correlational Method • Causal-Comparative or “Ex post facto’ Method • True Experimental Method • Quasi-experiment Method • Action Research • Observational Research • Survey Research

5. Historical Method Purpose: To reconstruct the past objectively and accurately, often in relation to the tenability of a hypothesis. Examples: A study reconstructing practices in the study of social studies in the Philippines during the past fifty years; tracing the history of agrarian reform in the Philippines, Philippine education since 1946; testing the hypothesis that Francis Bacon is the real author of the “works of William Shakespeare.”

6. Descriptive Method Purpose: To describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually and accurately. Examples: Population census studies, public opinion surveys, fact-finding surveys, status studies, task analysis studies, questionnaire and interview studies, observation studies, job descriptions, surveys of the literature, documentary analyses, anecdotal records, critical incident reports, test score analyses, and normative data.

7. Developmental Method Purpose: To investigate patterns and sequences of growth and/or change as a function of time. Examples:A longitudinal growth study following an initial sample of 200 children from six months of age to adulthood; a cross-sectional growth study investigating changing patterns of intelligence by sampling groups of children at ten different age levels; a trend study projecting the future growth and educational needs of a community from past trends and recent building estimates.

8. Case and Field Method Purpose: To study intensely the background, current status, and environmental interactions of a given social unit: an individual, a group, an institution, or a community. Examples: The case history of a child with an above average IQ but with severe learning disabilities; an intensive study of a group of teenage youngsters on probation for drug abuse; an intensive study of a typical suburban community in Luzon in terms of its socio-economic characteristics.

9. Correlational Method Purpose: To investigate the extent to which variations in one factor correlate with variations in one or more other factors based on correlation coefficient. Examples:To investigate relationships between reading achievement scores and one or more variables of interest; a factor-analytic study of several intelligence tests; a study to predict success in college based on inter-correlation patterns between college grades and selected high school variables.

10. Causal-Comparative or “Ex post facto’ Method Purpose:To investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing some existing consequence and looking back through the data for plausible causal factors. Examples: To identify factors related to the “drop-out” problems in a particular high school using data from records over the past ten years; to investigate similarities and differences between such groups as smokers and nonsmokers, readers and nonreaders, or delinquents and non-delinquents, using data on file.

11. True Experimental Method Purpose:To investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing the results to one or more control groups not receiving the treatment, random assignment being essential. Examples: To investigate the effectiveness of three methods of teaching reading to first-grade children using random assignments of children and teachers to groups and methods; to investigate the effects of a specific tranquilizing drug on the learning behavior of boys identified as “hyperactive” using random assignment to groups receiving three different levels of drug and two control groups with and without a pacebo, respectively.

12. Quasi-experiment Method Purpose: To approximate the conditions of the true experiment in a setting which does not allow the control or manipulation of all relevant variables. The researcher must clearly understand what compromises exists in the internal and external validity of his design and proceed within these limitations. Examples: Most so-called field experiments, operational research, and even the more sophisticated forms of action research which attempt to get at causal factors in real life settings where only partial control is possible; e.g., an investigation of the effectiveness of any method or treatment condition where random assignments of subjects to methods or conditions is not possible.

13. Action Research Purpose: To develop new skills or new approaches and to solve problems with direct application to the classroom or other applied setting. Examples: An in-service training program to help teachers develop new skills in facilitating class discussion; to experiment with new approaches to teaching reading in bilingual children; to develop more effective counseling techniques for under-achievers.

14. Observational Research • Observation is essentially a technique for gathering data about the subjects involved in a study. • Therefore, it is basically a measurement technique that can be employed in most of educational research. • The great advantage of the observational process is that it enables the researcher to collect direct information about human behavior that can be collected only indirectly by measurement.

15. Observational research is especially effective in situations where the researcher wishes to study in detail specific areas of human behavior. • For example: What specific teaching strategy is most effective to teach basic number facts to severely retarded children? • How do pre school children respond to a television program that contains a high number of violent acts?

16. Survey Research • Survey research typically employs questionnaires and interviews in order to determine opinions, attitudes, preferences, and perceptions of interest to the researcher. • Perhaps the best-known surveys are those carried out by the various public opinion polls.

17. Survey studies that deal with sensitive topics, such as premarital sex relationships, or that attempt to elicit deeper responses can be easily measured with questionnaire, and frequently employ interviews. Some survey studies employ a combination of questionnaires and interviews; the questionnaires are employed to collect basic descriptive information from abroad sample, and the interviews are used to follow up the questionnaire responses in depth for a smaller sample.

18. Population of the Study When you are writing the population and locale of the study factors like selection of respondents and setting of the study are considered. When determining the population and locale of your study, you may need to go back to your title and statement of the problem. Here, you conceive the target participants and where they are located.

19. Sampling Technique Sample is the representative of your study used to answer questionnaires or participant. In a descriptive study, usually the respondents are very large. If you consider them all, it entails a lot of money, time and effort. When taken honestly and accurately, the sample could provide valid information similar to what is expected of the whole universe of the study. A sample is selected from a larger group, which is called a population.

20. Sampling refers to the method of choosing subjects in a particular study. • According to Best and Kahn (1998), the primary purpose of research is to discover principles that have universal application, but to study a whole population to arrive at generalizations would be impractical, if not impossible.

21. The Slovin’s formula is used in getting the sample (Pagoso, et. al., 1992) n = N 1 + Ne2 where: n = sample N = total population e2 = margin of error preferred

22. After combining the size of the sample, you may now determine the sampling techniques to be employed. There are two general types of sampling, namely: • Probability random sampling • Non – probability sampling

23. Probability Random Sampling This type of sampling provides equal opportunities for the population to be chosen as participants of the study. This is commonly used in descriptive research.

24. Non – Probability Sampling The selection of respondents is based on the convenience of the researcher and the purpose of the study. It does not involve systematic selection of participants. The qualitative studies like ethnographic case study and historical need not select respondents randomly. You would only include participants who possess characteristics that could provide information to the investigation.

25. Types of commonly used probability random sampling: • Simple random sampling • Proportional random sampling • Stratified random sampling • Systematic random sampling

26. Simple Random Sampling This is the most basic and commonly used sampling technique in descriptive research. It can be done through the lottery or fish bowl method and with the use of the table of random numbers.

27. Procedures in obtaining the sample using the lottery or fish bowl technique: • Compute the sample size. This is to determine the actual number of participants to be drawn. • Determine where you will obtain the sample or the total population. • Design what you are going to use in the selection of respondents. • Make a listing or assign numbers to each of the total population, or make a code, as you find convenient to use. • Put them in a container or box, and then draw the sample. • After drawing the sample, refer to your listing and determine the actual names of the respondents.

28. Table of Random Numbers • Sample is drawn based on the generated random numbers contained in the columns with digits. The usual procedure of determining the sample size to be drawn from each of the participants is used because this will be the basis for drawing actual participants from the desired number of samples. The digits in the random table should equal the digits of the population.

29. Proportional Random Sampling This type of random sampling is used when you are trying to pick our respondents from all levels or groups of the population. The word “proportion” means a representative based on the total population. The bigger the number of the population, the higher the proportion or percentage will be and vise versa.

30. Stratified Random Sampling This technique of sampling is used by making subdivisions of the total population into smaller groups to represent the sample of the study. For every small group, the proportional sample will be drawn. In the event that each group still contains a large population after the subdivision is made, proportional or equal allocation may be employed.

31. Systematic Random Sampling The use of systematic random sampling in drawing respondents of a study is as simple as the simple random sampling. As in the other probability random sampling procedures, the sample size should be obtained first. The sample size is the basis for the computation of the starting number. According to Best (1998), a systematic sample consist of the selection of each nth term from a list.

32. Types of commonly-used non-probability or non-random sampling: • Convenience sampling • Purposive sampling • Quota sampling

33. Convenience Sampling The respondents are obtained based on the availability or preference of the teacher. Those that can be easily reached individually are usually considered. In a survey, only those with whom the researcher can easily communicate are chosen. This type of sampling does not entail too much money, time or effort.

34. Purposive Sampling The sample respondents are chosen based on the criteria or purpose of the study. In writing an oral history of a particular community, those with personal knowledge, especially the senior citizens of the community who have witnessed the events discussed in the study, are chosen.

35. Quota Sampling The word “quota” means desired quantity or allocation. As used in research, quota respondents are chosen based on characteristics needed in the investigation. For example, if the quota is at least 50 respondents, those who possess similar characteristics are included, regardless of how they are chosen.

36. Respondents of the Study • The researcher explains the characteristics of the respondents and the reasons why they are chosen. • The number of respondents depends on the extensiveness/intensiveness of verifiable data needed in the study. • After a thorough discussion of the number of respondents stated as frequency and equivalent percentage, the researcher provides a tabular presentation of the distribution of respondents.

37. Data-Gathering Instruments • Three important factors to consider: • The Research Instrument • Sources • Modes of Collection

38. Research Instrument • A device designed or adopted by the researcher for data-gathering. • To arrive at accurate findings and conclusions the instruments used by a researcher should be valid and reliable to objectively answer the purpose of the study.

39. The research instrument depends on the nature of the problem and the research design. • Descriptive studies usually employ questionnaires, interviews and observations. • Experimental studies may or may not use questionnaires but manipulate variable, observations, and documentations.

40. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) data-gathering instruments are classified based on who provides the information, namely: • Researcher instruments • Subject instruments, and • Informant instruments

41. Researcher Instruments • In this instrument, the researcher obtains information or data himself with little or no direct involvement of other people.

42. Subject Instruments • The data is collected by directly involving the respondents. • Example: the data may be collected by asking for a copy of the available facilities and equipment, indicating actual numbers. • From the list, the researcher may determine extent of availability and adequacy.

43. Informant Instruments • The data is collected from those knowledgeable or aware of the subjects. • The researcher may ask school administrators, science teachers, and students to evaluate extent of availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment of the SUC’s in Region 1.

44. Commonly-used research instruments: • Questionnaire • Interview • Observation

45. 1. The Questionnaire • It is a written or printed form containing the objectives of the study. • This is administered on the respondents to elicit the required data based on procedures made by the researcher.

46. It is the most convenient and also the easiest way to gather data. • The researcher may or may not personally administer the questionnaire provided all instructions are clearly specified.

47. Two types of questionnaires: • Open-ended questionnaire • Close-ended questionnaire

48. Open-Ended Questionnaire • Respondents are free to answer the questions asked in the questionnaire. • This is the type of questionnaire when the researcher usually does not limit the information coming from the respondents. • The preparation is very simple. However, the difficulty is in data processing because you need to include and present common findings. • Frequency distribution is a common difficulty. • This is best suited for a qualitative research study.

49. Example: • Briefly describe the marriage practices of your tribe? __________________________ • What animal/s and how many are to be butchered for the wedding? _____________ • Describe the rituals of your tribe before, on, and after the wedding? _________________ • Describe how dowry is practiced in your tribe? ________________________________

50. Closed-Ended Questionnaire • Calderon and Gonzales (1994) referred to this as the guided response type, closed form or restricted. • The respondents are guided in answering questions. • Options may be provided like in a multiple-choice tests while answers are based on the rating scales provided.