Three-Dimensional Europeanization in Turkey: A Heuristic Device

1. EU as a ‘heuristic device’Three-dimensional Europeanization in Turkey Didem Buhari-Gulmez

2. Heuristic • “heuristic is a strategy that ignores part of the information, with the goal of making decisions more quickly, frugally, and/or accurately than more complex methods” (Gigerenzer&Gaissmeier 2011:454)

3. The EU: a-temporal, a-spatial,polycentric • ‘The EU is not what it does or what it says, but what it is’ (Manners 2002:252). • The EU decontextualizes/dehistoricizes/objectifies the idea of Europe(s). It is not identical to what it models. It is a ‘heuristic device’ that enables understanding of what it models. (‘Many Europes’ in several realms)

4. Three realms in social and political life

5. 3 types of actors

6. Different types of rationality

7. Primary actors of ‘Many Europes’

8. Europeanization processes

9. Logics of responding to ‘Many Europes’

10. It’s not about money! • “Previously EU membership was sought for mainly economic reasons: economic aid and employment opportunities in Europe. Yet, things seem to have significantly changed. Turkey has become a successful economy and the EU is suffering economic crises and high levels of unemployment.” (Taha Aksoy, government MP) • The EU is no more able to provide with substantial economic aid to its member countries like Greece, let alone the candidate countries like Turkey. Besides, what it offers is ‘peanut’ [insignificant] for today’s Turkey.”(Algan Hacaloglu, opposition MP).

11. It’s about standard of modernity • “We value (post-Helsinki/membership) process much more than the outcome (full membership) because it already anchors Turkey to ‘standard of contemporary civilization’” (A. Caliskan, government MP).

12. It’s about peace (institutionalization of interdependence) • “I reject outcome-focused approach to EU-Turkey relations. Both the EU and the international system are dynamic, and transformations they undertake are only partially predictable. It is thus misleading to see the relations in terms of some love-hate relationship. The process is much more important. It catalyzes democratization, advance of human rights and rule of law in Turkey. It institutionalizes mutual interests and interdependencies in economic, political and legal domains.” (Z. Dagi).

13. It’s about democracy, transparency... • “There is uncertainty around both Turkey’s EU membership and EU’s own future. Too many unknown variables to solve the equation. So, let’s focus on the process. If we succeed in enacting well-functioning democratic institutions, transparent market economy, more freedoms, less corruption, then membership becomes less important.” (Yasar Yakis)

14. Yet EU is not a precondition • “EU membership is a natural result [not cause] of Turkey’s modernization process. Implementing socio-economic EU criteria is an important step towards further modernization of state and society. These criteria are inevitable even when they are thought independently of EU membership.” (AKP election manifesto 2002).

15. Yet EU is a ‘catalyst’ • “The EU membership process accelerates advance of democracy, human rights, and rule of law in candidate states. Yet, it is still possible to democratize and modernize without the EU process. Think about Norway. Membership is not precondition for modernity.”(Pazarci, opposition MP).

16. Turkey’s modernization is peculiar • “I strongly disagree with the claim that Turkey couldn’t achieve modernization without EU membership. Turkey is already experiencing a modernization process that derives from its cultural peculiarities and traditions. Nothing can stop this process.” (Murat Mercan, government MP, chair of External Rels. committee)

17. Normative Europeanization: de/legitimation processes • delegitimation of kemalism defined as an oppressive militaristic regime against individuals, ethnic groups, and foreigners… • popularization of historical figures who have longtime been ‘bête noire’ of the kemalist regime: Ottoman sultan second Abdulhamid, Kurdish tribe leader Sheikh Said etc.

18. Cognitive ‘finger prints’ • Redefinition/Reframing/Reorganization: sovereignty, minority, martyrdom, F-type prison cell system • New problems: ‘European foreigner’ vs. foreigner, Turkey between ‘two Wests’, Turkish secularism • New concepts, methods, and institutions: ‘EU experts’, EU ministry, multilevel governance, rewriting official Turkish history

19. Europeanization as mental processes • “I think EU-led reforms transform Turkish mentality (way of seeing, interpreting, understanding things)” (Ufuk Uras, opp. MP).

20. It’s about understanding [cognitive](neither strategy nor evaluation) • Europeans do not understand us. They have a false image of Turkey on their mind and we fail to explain them the striking difference between the reality and their view of Turkey [mental shortcut]. (Opposition MP)

21. It’s a category/class/title • EU membership means recognition/a legitimate status in the world. Greece which is way behind in economic terms is often rated better than Turkey by independent credit agencies just because it has the title [‘EU member’] EU membership is another category in the eyes of the world countries. (Yasar Yakis, Government MP) • We aim to promote Turkey to a higher class/rank in the world. We are doing it by using the EU support as both an anchor and a justification. When show the EU as an example, opposition to reforms decreases, at least in rhetorics. Even the status/title ‘official EU candidate’ has improved Turkey’s weight and prestige in the Middle East, Africa, and the Far East. (Caliskan, Gov. MP)

22. Universal, not European standards • “Ataturk set the target as ‘civilization’, not European one. All societies that fit the standard of contemporary civilization deserve our respect.”(Pazarci, opposition MP). • “Let’s not forget that our essential aim is to reach highest standards in the world [not necessarily European]” (A. Gul, Turkish President 2009).

23. Universal, not European • “What we call the EU and its acquis is only a part of universal human rights, democracy and rule of law. It does not represent all universal values. Turkey among other islamic countries has contributed much to the formation of universal values.” (Faruk Bal Opposition MP 2010).

24. Universal, not European • “CHP supports EU-led reforms because in addition to spreading EU standards, they further integrate Turkey with the world, and help Turkey to adjust its economic, social, legal structures to world standards.” (Faik Oztrak 2010).

25. EU advances legitimate standards • “The principal reason for my support to Turkey’s EU membership is the EU’s provision of standards. (Ufuk Uras, Opposition MP).

26. It’s a blueprint,roadmap, standard • EU process provides us with standards [of contemporary/modern civilization]. Those standards are largely enacted and refined by the EU but these are universal, not European • Without the EU pressures, Turkey would still continue its efforts to catch up with those [universal] standards yet the EU process has surely accelerated the pace of necessary reforms. • If the EU membership prospects become impossible, we’ll call the Copenhagen criteria ‘Ankara or Istanbul criteria’ and continue reforms.

27. Turkey’s Europeanization processes

28. Concluding Remarks • Turkish Reforms cannot be explained by merely incentive-based mechanism and instrumental logic. • Turkish emphasis on norms, culture, identity • Turkish emphasis on cognitive dimension