Objective 2.1 Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies .

1. Objective 2.1Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.

2. What is a Schema? • A schema is a network of knowledge, beliefs, or expectations about specific aspects of the world. Schema theory is the idea that humans try to categorize new knowledge into existing schema in order to better understand it in the context of the world. • The underlying assumption of this theory is that humans are active processors of information, and that distortion (mistakes in memory) occurs when an individual incorrectly fills in the blanks.

3. What is a Schema? There are multiple types of schemas. A few notable ones include: a) cognitive schema- expectations as to what will happen because of preconceived notions b) social schema- a framework that helps explain stereotyping and prejudice c) gender schema- a child's expectations for how to behave according to his or her gender

4. What is a Schema? What goes into each particular schema is largely dependent on culture. As stated in principle 3 of the CLOA, social and cultural factors influence cognitive processes

5. What is a Schema? • Schemas are used to organize our knowledge, to assist recall, to guide our behavior, to predict likely happenings, and to help us make sense of current experiences. They simplify reality. • For example, we may have “schemas” for a good teacher and bad teacher. When we see behavior similar to our schema of a good teacher we may then label the teacher as a good teacher.

6. What is a Schema? • Experience can also change schemas. • For example, when you were younger, you may have thought that a “good teacher” was someone who gave little to no work and had a relatively “easy” class. • Your schema for a “good teacher” may now be someone who prepares you for college and or helps you to understand the material.

7. Examples of schema theory in research • Support for the influence of schemas on cognitive processes is widespread. Bartlett (1932) demonstrated how schema, specifically cultural schema, can influence memory in his classic study. • He gave participants a complex and unusual story called ‘The War of the Ghosts' which contained unfamiliar concepts and an odd, causal structure to Western participants. • He purposefully did this so the information would not fit into their pre-existing schemas.

8. Evaluation of schema theory in research • There are many research studies to support the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory (Barlett, Brewer, etc.). This theory seems quite useful for understanding how people categorize information, interpret stories and make inferences. • Schema theory has also contributed to our understanding of how cognition develops in children (Piaget) and also how memories can become distorted. Furthermore, social psychologists often refer to “social schemas” when they are trying to explain stereotyping and prejudice.

9. Evaluation of schema theory in research • Schema theory helps to understand cultural and gender differences, since different genders & cultures may have different schemas which influence the way they interpret the world.

10. Evaluation of schema theory in research • Though the schema theory has been demonstrated in numerous studies, it has several flaws as well. • One of the most criticized aspects of the Schema theory is its susceptibility to distortions. According to Brewer and Treyen, people tend to experience schematic gap filling, meaning that they use their knowledge of similar schemas to draw conclusions about certain situations.

11. Brewer and Treyen’s research study Look at the following picture of an office

12. Brewer and Treyen’s research study

13. Brewer and Treyen’s research study Identify all of the items that you recall seeing…

14. Brewer and Treyen’s research study In the original study:1. Participants were asked to stay in an office2. The person who created this experiment told the participants to stay there while the previous participants finish3. 35 seconds later, participants were taken to another office and were asked to remember all the things they could4. People used the technique of 'office schema' to remember things

15. Brewer and Treyen’s research study Findings: 1. Almost all participants remembered the desk and the chair 2. Eight out of the thirty remembered the skull 3. Just a few participants remembered the bottle of wine or the coffee pot 4. Only one remembered the picnic basket 5. 9 participants recalled objects that weren't even there such as books (These are new items consistent with the schema)

16. Evaluation of schema theory in research • However, there are some methodological flaws with the research, for example, Bartletts' choice of material meant that the stories he chose may not have been meaningful to other people, but he had no objective measure of 'meaningfulness'.

17. Evaluation of schema theory in research • Cohen (1993) states that schema theory is rather vague and the theory fails to offer detailed explanations of how the schemas are acquired in the first place. Cohen believes the theory is overly simplistic (reductionist) and does not account for complexity of human cognition.

18. Objective 2.2 Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies.

19. Studying cognitive processes scientifically According to the second principle of the cognitive level of analysis: • Models of mental processes can be proposed and investigated scientifically Research have looked at models for various cognitive processes: • Decision Making (availability heuristics, representative heuristics, etc.) • Language (rote-memory model, abilities model, critical age model) • Learning (social learning, operant conditioning, etc.)

20. Learning as a cognitive process • Learning is a basic cognitive process for understanding behavior. Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as the result of prior experience. • According to principle 1, models of mental processes can be proposed and investigated scientifically. Thus, it should be no surprise that models exist to better understand the cognitive process of learning.

21. Learning as a cognitive process • Psychologists have long studied the various methods by which animals and humans learn. • These methods can be conscious or subconscious, and influenced by both outside factors and self-interest. • Currently, three learning models are most widely recognized and used: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. For this objective, we will explore operant conditioning and social learning.

22. Operant conditioning • Coined by Behaviorist B.F. Skinner, Operant conditioning is a model of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. • Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

23. Operant conditioning • As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. • Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

24. Operant conditioning Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior. • Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. • Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

25. Operant Conditioning • According to Skinner, we learn what behaviors to demonstrate by causes (reward and punishment). • Thus, we behave kindly to seek approval from others and or to avoid punishment. • http://www.cleanvideosearch.com/media/action/yt/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA

26. Brief discussion Operant Conditioning • Would you still attend school, seek high grades, or take challenging course without reward or with no fear of punishment? • Can you think of any behavior that does not seem to satisfy an internal or external reward?

27. Strengths of Operant Conditioning Wide range of application: • We see Operant Conditioning studied and applied in many different aspects of life (school, work, parenting, relationships, etc.) Large empirical evidence • The scientific study of operant conditioning dates from the beginning of the twentieth century with the work of Edward L. Thorndike in the U.S

28. Strengths of Operant Conditioning • Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped. • http://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html

29. The Cognitive Process of Memory • Thorndike’s research is an example of the strong empirical support for this model. • More specifically, it showed how rewards and punishments play a role in shaping our behaviors (which is the basis of the model)

30. Limitations of Operant Conditioning Rejection of role of cognitive factors • Skinner himself rejected the idea that cognitive factors influence behavior. Through large bodies of research, we know that internal cognitions influence our schemas, our decision making, and our actions. Evidence of cognitive processing in learning • Evidence of cognitive processing have come from studying rats in mazes. Various research studies have supported the assumption that cognitive maps (mental representations) play an important role in learning.

31. Limitations of Operant Conditioning Proof of Latent Learning • The type of learning that is not exhibited until there is some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it. • It is important to understand that there is a difference between learning and performance. • For example, if you are in a car going to school with a friend every day, but your friend is driving all the time, you may learn the way to get to school, but have no reason to demonstrate this knowledge. Unless your friend is sick and you have to drive.

32. Limitations of Operant Conditioning Biological predispositions • Research has found that an animal’s natural predispositions constrain its capacity for operant conditioning. This also points to internal factors that influence learning. • As we have learned from the Biological level of analysis, physiological processes play an important role in human behavior, specifically with learning. • That is, ones chemical and physical processes may limit or increase ones capacity for learning.

33. "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them on what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.“ -Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

34. Social affects on learning • Social learning refers to the acquisition of mental representations that happens exclusively or primarily by interactions in a social group. • Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. • Among others Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.

35. Social affects on learning • Social learning theorists share many assumptions with operant conditioning, particularly the belief that people are shaped in fundamental ways by their environment through learning processes. • Social learning theorists also acknowledge that operant conditioning is an important influence on human behavior.

36. Social affects on learning • However, they add to these learning processes a third: observational learning. • They believe people learn by observing others and therefore social situations are particularly important of an influence on behavior.

37. Basic concepts of social learning There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. • First is the idea that people can learn through observation. • Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Meaning that the ability to form memories from what you observe are key to learning. Thus, biological factors can interfere with social learning • Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

38. Learning by Observation • Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. • Example: The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. Hence the phrase monkey see monkey do.

39. Reviewing mirror Neurons As previously discussed, mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans are active during observational learning. Thus, we can create a schema of how to behave in social situations simply by observing a behavior

40. Imitation Onset • According to the theory, learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. • This would suggest that we can create memory models of how to act, respond, and adapt to our environment simply by seeing something occur. How can this positively and negatively influence our behavior from a cognitive perspective?

41. Bandura's Experiments • Albert Bandura’s research in the 1970’s laid the foundation for social learning. • In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people.

42. Bandura's Experiments Video on Bandura’s original study http://blip.tv/bball4/albert-bandura-bobo-doll-experiment-4027582 Original Study: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm

43. Evaluation of SLT • Its commitment to scientific methods is a strength of the social learning approach as its research studies are reliable and allow inferences about cause and effect to be drawn.

44. Evaluation of SLT • However, this does give rise to the criticism that it relies heavily on research conducted in rather artificial settings. • For example, some critics argue that the behavior of the children in Bandura’s studies was significantly influenced by demand characteristics and that they were, in effect, deliberately producing the behavior they thought the experimenters wanted to see.

45. Evaluation of SLT • Because the social learning approach takes into account the cognitive factors that mediate between stimuli and responses, it addresses one of the most important criticisms of operant conditioning; its neglect of thinking processes. • Consequently, social learning theory can explain a range of processes that operant conditioning has difficulties with. • It has contributed significantly to our understanding of processes like aggression and gender development and has also formed the basis of a range of treatments for problems like phobias.

46. Objective 2.3 Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process.

47. Biological factors and cognitive processes. • What do we already know about the relationship between physiology and cognition that can help us to answer this question?

48. 1. Our physiological processes give rise to cognitive processes. • In other words, specific parts of the brain can directly correlate to cognitive processes. • Damage to the frontal lobe can directly affect the cognitive process of decision making

49. 1. Our physiological processes give rise to cognitive processes. • Damage to Broca’s area can directly affect the cognitive process of language production

50. 1. Our physiological processes give rise to cognitive processes. • Damage to the hippocampus can directly affect the cognitive process of short term memory