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THE URBAN ATMOSPHERE OF THE 21 ST CENTURY

THE URBAN ATMOSPHERE OF THE 21 ST CENTURY. INHERITANCE FROM 20 TH CENTURY. Liquid fuel – secondary pollution – photochemistry – inversion Yet traditional problems such as odour remain. 2 O PHOTOCHEMICAL POLLUTION. CARCINOGENS. NEUROTOXIN. ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR. TERATOGEN.

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THE URBAN ATMOSPHERE OF THE 21 ST CENTURY

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  1. THE URBAN ATMOSPHERE OF THE 21ST CENTURY

  2. INHERITANCE FROM 20TH CENTURY • Liquid fuel – secondary pollution – photochemistry – inversion • Yet traditional problems such as odour remain

  3. 2OPHOTOCHEMICAL POLLUTION CARCINOGENS NEUROTOXIN ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR TERATOGEN DOMINANCE of the AUTOMOBILE WOOD SMOKE VOCs, O3 COAL SMOKE DIESEL SMOKE SMELLs LEAD H2S POPs TIME

  4. OK EXCEPT FOR 2ND POLLUTIONEPA ambient air quality trends

  5. UK: QUALITY OF URBAN AIR REVIEW GROUP (QUARG) • Review groups and their context • Networks and public communication • Preparation for EC directives

  6. SMOG OF 1991 • 12th to the 15th of December 1991 • estimated that smog caused around 160 more deaths than normal • Cardiovascular (up 14%) and respiratory (up 22%) deaths increased • Schwartz and Dockery

  7. QUARG and OUTPUT • Reports focus on particulate matter (especially PM10 and PM2.5 and diesel

  8. KUZNETS CURVE Simon Kuznets' hypothesis- as a country develops, there is a natural cycle of economic inequality driven by market forces which at first increases inequality, and then decreases • The environmental Kuznets curve relationship between • indicators of environmental degradation • income per capita

  9. POLLUTION INEQUALITY INCOME PER CAPITA INDUSTRIALIZATION KUZNETS RELATIONSHIP • Inverted U-shape curves of pollutants over time seen as economically driven • Pollutant concentrations in London follow a Kuznets curve • Such curves particularly evident for pollutants creating localised problems that offer local benefits via regulation. BRIMBLECOMBE & GROSSI Millennium-long damage to building materials in London, Science of the Total Environment 407, 1354 (2009).

  10. NZRESOURCE MANAGEMENT REGULATIONS • Regulations of 2004 as allowed under Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) • Note it is about management and quote Elsom on Air Quality Management • Clean Air and Environmental Quality, Volume 38, 1. (2004) http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/rma/user-guide-draft-oct05/html/page3.html

  11. NZRESOURCE MANAGEMENT REGULATIONS • Regional council plans determine paths to comply with the fine particle standard by 1 September 2013 http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/rma/user-guide-draft-oct05/html/page3.html

  12. REGULATION OF PM • Confusion over mechanisms and measurement • regulation of size not effects • Regulatory problems: • uncertainty • no-thresholds • Constitutional dilemmas TSP PM10 PM2.5

  13. CONCENTRATION PROBLEMS WITH STANDARDS • Meeting limit values may not always reduce exposure most effectively LIMIT VALUE Meets limit value CURRENT Fails to meet limit value, but much reduced cumulative does

  14. PREVENTION OF SIGNIFICANT DETRIMENT (PSD): embodied in CAA(1977) Sierra Club challenged EPA approval that allowed air quality degradation in areas having air quality better than the national ambient air quality standards. Sierra Club v. Ruckelshaus (1972) Giant Forest in Sequoia National Park http://www.nps.gov/archive/seki/snrm/air/visibility.htm

  15. $$$$PARIS OZONE AND HEATWAVE 2003 Climate change and increasing ozone? Smog’n Paris (& 400 000 morts prématurées en Europe, chaque année)

  16. Daily max 8 hour ozone Bridge Place London then Westminster – μg/m3 • Longer term issues – temperature and sunlight may increase ozone, but precursors may decline 1990 2000 2008 OZONE TREND

  17. INTERGRATED EXPOSURE TO SUMMER OZONE • AOT40 for forests in England (Harwell, Aston Hill and Ladybower) • April-September daytime ozone over threshold of 40 ppb

  18. THE SCHOOL RUN HOPLEY, E. BRIMBLECOMBE, P. Clean Air & Env Prot. 32, 75-77 (2002) AIR POLLUTION AND FREEDOMS • Mode of transport – congestion charges • Regulation of indoor spaces and furnishings • Bonfires in gardens

  19. POLLUTION & PLEASURESUVs and 2-STROKES • Diesel soot • 2-stroke particles - condensed heavy hydrocarbons • Lawn-mowers contribute 5-12% CO/HC in Australian cities.

  20. 1800 2400 0600 MILLENNIUM EDINBURGH FIREWORKS Celebrations a complex issue for policy makers… Nov 5th PM10 LONDON

  21. Image source: Te ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/ClimateAndAtmosphere/Atmosphere/5/ENZ-Resources/Standard/2/2/en#breadcrumbtop DOMESTIC /CULTURAL EMISSIONS • Domestic indoor heating and cooking • Wood and coal • Cultural outdoor burning • Hangi • Umu • Bonfires • NES does not regulate domestic fires • Plan includes rules for domestic fires, but regulation difficult

  22. AGGRESSIVE APPROACHES • Mayor Ken Livingstone • Legal challenges • Congestion or pollution control • Profitability • Transfer to other cities

  23. CONGESTION CHARGINGLondon from Feb 2003 • 12% reduction in NO2 • 15% reduction in vehicle km • Expected increase from buses have been offset by introduction of particle traps • Reduction in NOX and PM10 from increases in vehicle speed (~ 2.1 km h-1) • Early lack of acceptance may have been thwarted Beevers and Carslaw (2005a,b)

  24. SECONDARY ORGANIC AEROSOL • Recognising that the organic material formed in the smog was important • Oxidized compounds, but necessarily non volatile – e.g. dicarboxylic acids

  25. anthanthrene benzo(a)pyrene pyrene 2.2 min 200 min 5.7 days TRANSFORMATION ON PARTICLES aldehyde of 5a,b-secobenzo(a)pyrene PAH lifetime on wood smoke and gasoline soot

  26. ON SILICA SURFACES

  27. OXIDATION OF NAPTHALENE hν, SiO2 OH, NO

  28. SOLUBILIZATION OF NAPTHALENE K = mC10H8/pC10H8 Mario Massucci UEA

  29. PULMONARY SURFACTANTS ALVEOLI PULMONARY SURFACTANTS • Surfactants in alveoli aid gas exchange, but also lung defence. • Would aerosol surfactants alter these functions?

  30. ALTERNATE FUELS Data gathered in the late 1980s…

  31. METHANOLIMPACT IN A LARGE CITY • Peak 1h ozone little change • Average O3 improves • PAN reduced • Increased peak HCHO, but average does not change much

  32. BIOFUELS • Methanol –expensive to produce from biomass • Ethanol - from sugar cane • automotive fuel in Brazil. Ethanol • corn derived gasoline additive in the US, • from cellulose waste, perhaps for NZ forest products industry • Biodiesel - Rudolf Diesel’s engine designed for peanut oil • Direct use of bagasse, rice husks

  33. BIOFUELS - PROBLEMS • Wasteful as it often comes from food crops such as corn, sugar, soya oil… • Methanol leads it high formaldehyde concentrations • Methanol/ethanol very water soluble • Biodiesel may lead to high NOx emissions • Bagasse, rice husks or wood may have high hydrochloric acid emissions http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jan2002/2002-01-04-06.asp

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