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Valuation: Lecture Note Packet 1 Intrinsic Valuation

Valuation: Lecture Note Packet 1 Intrinsic Valuation. Aswath Damodaran Updated: September 2011. The essence of intrinsic value. In intrinsic valuation, you value an asset based upon its intrinsic characteristics.

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Valuation: Lecture Note Packet 1 Intrinsic Valuation

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  1. Valuation: Lecture Note Packet 1Intrinsic Valuation Aswath Damodaran Updated: September 2011

  2. The essence of intrinsic value • In intrinsic valuation, you value an asset based upon its intrinsic characteristics. • For cash flow generating assets, the intrinsic value will be a function of the magnitude of the expected cash flows on the asset over its lifetime and the uncertainty about receiving those cash flows. • Discounted cash flow valuation is a tool for estimating intrinsic value, where the expected value of an asset is written as the present value of the expected cash flows on the asset, with either the cash flows or the discount rate adjusted to reflect the risk.

  3. The two faces of discounted cash flow valuation • The value of a risky asset can be estimated by discounting the expected cash flows on the asset over its life at a risk-adjusted discount rate: where the asset has a n-year life, E(CFt) is the expected cash flow in period t and r is a discount rate that reflects the risk of the cash flows. • Alternatively, we can replace the expected cash flows with the guaranteed cash flows we would have accepted as an alternative (certainty equivalents) and discount these at the riskfree rate: where CE(CFt) is the certainty equivalent of E(CFt) and rf is the riskfree rate.

  4. Risk Adjusted Value: Two Basic Propositions Proposition 1: For an asset to have value, the expected cash flows have to be positive some time over the life of the asset. Proposition 2: Assets that generate cash flows early in their life will be worth more than assets that generate cash flows later; the latter may however have greater growth and higher cash flows to compensate.

  5. DCF Choices: Equity Valuation versus Firm Valuation Firm Valuation: Value the entire business Equity valuation: Value just the equity claim in the business

  6. Equity Valuation

  7. Firm Valuation

  8. Firm Value and Equity Value • To get from firm value to equity value, which of the following would you need to do? • Subtract out the value of long term debt • Subtract out the value of all debt • Subtract the value of any debt that was included in the cost of capital calculation • Subtract out the value of all liabilities in the firm • Doing so, will give you a value for the equity which is • greater than the value you would have got in an equity valuation • lesser than the value you would have got in an equity valuation • equal to the value you would have got in an equity valuation

  9. Cash Flows and Discount Rates • Assume that you are analyzing a company with the following cashflows for the next five years. Year CF to Equity Interest Exp (1-tax rate) CF to Firm 1 $ 50 $ 40 $ 90 2 $ 60 $ 40 $ 100 3 $ 68 $ 40 $ 108 4 $ 76.2 $ 40 $ 116.2 5 $ 83.49 $ 40 $ 123.49 Terminal Value $ 1603.0 $ 2363.008 • Assume also that the cost of equity is 13.625% and the firm can borrow long term at 10%. (The tax rate for the firm is 50%.) • The current market value of equity is $1,073 and the value of debt outstanding is $800.

  10. Equity versus Firm Valuation Method 1: Discount CF to Equity at Cost of Equity to get value of equity • Cost of Equity = 13.625% • Value of Equity = 50/1.13625 + 60/1.136252 + 68/1.136253 + 76.2/1.136254 + (83.49+1603)/1.136255 = $1073 Method 2: Discount CF to Firm at Cost of Capital to get value of firm Cost of Debt = Pre-tax rate (1- tax rate) = 10% (1-.5) = 5% WACC = 13.625% (1073/1873) + 5% (800/1873) = 9.94% PV of Firm = 90/1.0994 + 100/1.09942 + 108/1.09943 + 116.2/1.09944 + (123.49+2363)/1.09945 = $1873 Value of Equity = Value of Firm - Market Value of Debt = $ 1873 - $ 800 = $1073

  11. First Principle of Valuation • Never mix and match cash flows and discount rates. • The key error to avoid is mismatching cashflows and discount rates, since discounting cashflows to equity at the weighted average cost of capital will lead to an upwardly biased estimate of the value of equity, while discounting cashflows to the firm at the cost of equity will yield a downward biased estimate of the value of the firm.

  12. The Effects of Mismatching Cash Flows and Discount Rates Error 1: Discount CF to Equity at Cost of Capital to get equity value PV of Equity = 50/1.0994 + 60/1.09942 + 68/1.09943 + 76.2/1.09944 + (83.49+1603)/1.09945 = $1248 Value of equity is overstated by $175. Error 2: Discount CF to Firm at Cost of Equity to get firm value PV of Firm = 90/1.13625 + 100/1.136252 + 108/1.136253 + 116.2/1.136254 + (123.49+2363)/1.136255 = $1613 PV of Equity = $1612.86 - $800 = $813 Value of Equity is understated by $ 260. Error 3: Discount CF to Firm at Cost of Equity, forget to subtract out debt, and get too high a value for equity Value of Equity = $ 1613 Value of Equity is overstated by $ 540

  13. Discounted Cash Flow Valuation: The Steps • Estimate the discount rate or rates to use in the valuation • Discount rate can be either a cost of equity (if doing equity valuation) or a cost of capital (if valuing the firm) • Discount rate can be in nominal terms or real terms, depending upon whether the cash flows are nominal or real • Discount rate can vary across time. • Estimate the current earnings and cashflows on the asset, to either equity investors (CF to Equity) or to all claimholders (CF to Firm) • Estimate the future earnings and cash flows on the firm being valued, generally by estimating an expected growth rate in earnings. • Estimate when the firm will reach “stable growth”and what characteristics (risk & cash flow) it will have when it does. • Choose the right DCF model for this asset and value it.

  14. Generic DCF Valuation Model

  15. VALUING A FIRM Cashflow to Firm Expected Growth EBIT (1-t) Reinvestment Rate - (Cap Ex - Depr) * Return on Capital Firm is in stable growth: - Change in WC Grows at constant rate = FCFF forever Terminal Value= FCFF /(r-g ) n+1 n FCFF FCFF FCFF FCFF FCFF FCFF 1 2 3 4 5 n Value of Operating Assets ......... + Cash & Non-op Assets Forever = Value of Firm Discount at WACC= Cost of Equity (Equity/(Debt + Equity)) + Cost of Debt (Debt/(Debt+ Equity)) - Value of Debt = Value of Equity Cost of Equity Cost of Debt Weights (Riskfree Rate Based on Market Value + Default Spread) (1-t) Riskfree Rate : - No default risk Risk Premium Beta - No reinvestment risk - Premium for average + X - Measures market risk - In same currency and risk investment in same terms (real or nominal as cash flows Type of Operating Financial Base Equity Country Risk Business Leverage Leverage Premium Premium

  16. Discounted Cash Flow Valuation: The Inputs Aswath Damodaran

  17. I. Estimating Discount Rates DCF Valuation

  18. Estimating Inputs: Discount Rates • Critical ingredient in discounted cashflow valuation. Errors in estimating the discount rate or mismatching cashflows and discount rates can lead to serious errors in valuation. • At an intuitive level, the discount rate used should be consistent with both the riskiness and the type of cashflow being discounted. • Equity versus Firm: If the cash flows being discounted are cash flows to equity, the appropriate discount rate is a cost of equity. If the cash flows are cash flows to the firm, the appropriate discount rate is the cost of capital. • Currency: The currency in which the cash flows are estimated should also be the currency in which the discount rate is estimated. • Nominal versus Real: If the cash flows being discounted are nominal cash flows (i.e., reflect expected inflation), the discount rate should be nominal

  19. Cost of Equity • The cost of equity should be higher for riskier investments and lower for safer investments • While risk is usually defined in terms of the variance of actual returns around an expected return, risk and return models in finance assume that the risk that should be rewarded (and thus built into the discount rate) in valuation should be the risk perceived by the marginal investor in the investment • Most risk and return models in finance also assume that the marginal investor is well diversified, and that the only risk that he or she perceives in an investment is risk that cannot be diversified away (I.e, market or non-diversifiable risk)

  20. The Cost of Equity: Competing Models Model Expected Return Inputs Needed CAPM E(R) = Rf +  (Rm- Rf) Riskfree Rate Beta relative to market portfolio Market Risk Premium APM E(R) = Rf + j=1j (Rj- Rf) Riskfree Rate; # of Factors; Betas relative to each factor Factor risk premiums Multi E(R) = Rf + j=1,,Nj (Rj- Rf) Riskfree Rate; Macro factors factor Betas relative to macro factors Macro economic risk premiums Proxy E(R) = a + j=1..N bj Yj Proxies Regression coefficients

  21. The CAPM: Cost of Equity • Consider the standard approach to estimating cost of equity: Cost of Equity = Riskfree Rate + Equity Beta * (Equity Risk Premium) • In practice, • Government security rates are used as risk free rates • Historical risk premiums are used for the risk premium • Betas are estimated by regressing stock returns against market returns

  22. A Riskfree Rate • On a riskfree asset, the actual return is equal to the expected return. Therefore, there is no variance around the expected return. • For an investment to be riskfree, then, it has to have • No default risk • No reinvestment risk • Time horizon matters: Thus, the riskfree rates in valuation will depend upon when the cash flow is expected to occur and will vary across time. • Not all government securities are riskfree: Some governments face default risk and the rates on bonds issued by them will not be riskfree.

  23. Test 1: A riskfree rate in US dollars! • In valuation, we estimate cash flows forever (or at least for very long time periods). The right risk free rate to use in valuing a company in US dollars would be • A three-month Treasury bill rate • A ten-year Treasury bond rate • A thirty-year Treasury bond rate • A TIPs (inflation-indexed treasury) rate • None of the above

  24. Test 2: A Riskfree Rate in Euros

  25. Test 3: A Riskfree Rate in Indian Rupees • The Indian government had 10-year Rupee bonds outstanding, with a yield to maturity of about 8.5% on January 1, 2012. • In January 2012, the Indian government had a local currency sovereign rating of Baa3. The typical default spread (over a default free rate) for Baa3 rated country bonds in early 2012 was 2%. • The riskfree rate in Indian Rupees is • The yield to maturity on the 10-year bond (8.5%) • The yield to maturity on the 10-year bond + Default spread (10.5%) • The yield to maturity on the 10-year bond – Default spread (6.5%) • None of the above

  26. Sovereign Default Spread: Two paths to the same destination… • Sovereign dollar or euro denominated bonds: Find sovereign bonds denominated in US dollars, issued by emerging markets. The difference between the interest rate on the bond and the US treasury bond rate should be the default spread. For instance, in January 2012, the US dollar denominated 10-year bond issued by the Brazilian government (with a Baa2 rating) had an interest rate of 3.5%, resulting in a default spread of 1.6% over the US treasury rate of 1.9% at the same point in time. (On the same day, the ten-year Brazilian BR denominated bond had an interest rate of 12%) • CDS spreads: Obtain the default spreads for sovereigns in the CDS market. In January 2012, the CDS spread for Brazil in that market was 1.43%. • Average spread: For countries which don’t issue dollar denominated bonds or have a CDS spread, you have to use the average spread for other countries in the same rating class.

  27. Sovereign Default Spreads: End of 2011

  28. Revisiting US treasuries: What is the right riskfree rate in US dollars?

  29. Test 4: A Real Riskfree Rate • In some cases, you may want a riskfree rate in real terms (in real terms) rather than nominal terms. • To get a real riskfree rate, you would like a security with no default risk and a guaranteed real return. Treasury indexed securities offer this combination. • In January 2012, the yield on a 10-year indexed treasury bond was 1.00%. Which of the following statements would you subscribe to? • This (1.00%) is the real riskfree rate to use, if you are valuing US companies in real terms. • This (1.00%) is the real riskfree rate to use, anywhere in the world Explain.

  30. No default free entity: Choices with riskfree rates…. • Estimate a range for the riskfree rate in local terms: • Approach 1: Subtract default spread from local government bond rate: Government bond rate in local currency terms - Default spread for Government in local currency • Approach 2: Use forward rates and the riskless rate in an index currency (say Euros or dollars) to estimate the riskless rate in the local currency. • Do the analysis in real terms (rather than nominal terms) using a real riskfree rate, which can be obtained in one of two ways – • from an inflation-indexed government bond, if one exists • set equal, approximately, to the long term real growth rate of the economy in which the valuation is being done. • Do the analysis in a currency where you can get a riskfree rate, say US dollars or Euros.

  31. Why do riskfree rates vary across currencies?January 2012 Risk free rates

  32. One more test on riskfree rates… • In January 2012, the 10-year treasury bond rate in the United States was 1.87%, a historic low. Assume that you were valuing a company in US dollars then, but were wary about the riskfree rate being too low. Which of the following should you do? • Replace the current 10-year bond rate with a more reasonable normalized riskfree rate (the average 10-year bond rate over the last 30 years has been about 4%) • Use the current 10-year bond rate as your riskfree rate but make sure that your other assumptions (about growth and inflation) are consistent with the riskfree rate • Something else…

  33. B. Equity Risk PremiumsThe ubiquitous historical risk premium • The historical premium is the premium that stocks have historically earned over riskless securities. • While the users of historical risk premiums act as if it is a fact (rather than an estimate), it is sensitive to • How far back you go in history… • Whether you use T.bill rates or T.Bond rates • Whether you use geometric or arithmetic averages. • For instance, looking at the US:

  34. The perils of trusting the past……. • Noisy estimates: Even with long time periods of history, the risk premium that you derive will have substantial standard error. For instance, if you go back to 1928 (about 80 years of history) and you assume a standard deviation of 20% in annual stock returns, you arrive at a standard error of greater than 2%: Standard Error in Premium = 20%/√80 = 2.26% (An aside: The implied standard deviation in equities rose to almost 50% during the last quarter of 2008. Think about the consequences for using historical risk premiums, if this volatility persisted) • Survivorship Bias: Using historical data from the U.S. equity markets over the twentieth century does create a sampling bias. After all, the US economy and equity markets were among the most successful of the global economies that you could have invested in early in the century.

  35. Risk Premium for a Mature Market? Broadening the sample

  36. Two Ways of Estimating Country Equity Risk Premiums for other markets.. Brazil in August 2004 • Default spread on Country Bond: In this approach, the country equity risk premium is set equal to the default spread of the bond issued by the country (but only if it is denominated in a currency where a default free entity exists. • Brazil was rated B2 by Moody’s and the default spread on the Brazilian dollar denominated C.Bond at the end of August 2004 was 6.01%. (10.30%-4.29%) • Relative Equity Market approach: The country equity risk premium is based upon the volatility of the market in question relative to U.S market. Total equity risk premium = Risk PremiumUS* Country Equity / US Equity Using a 4.82% premium for the US (the historical premium from 1928-2003), this approach would yield: Total risk premium for Brazil = 4.82% (34.56%/19.01%) = 8.76% Country equity risk premium for Brazil = 8.76% - 4.82% = 3.94% (The standard deviation in weekly returns from 2002 to 2004 for the Bovespa was 34.56% whereas the standard deviation in the S&P 500 was 19.01%)

  37. And a third approach • Country ratings measure default risk. While default risk premiums and equity risk premiums are highly correlated, one would expect equity spreads to be higher than debt spreads. • Another is to multiply the bond default spread by the relative volatility of stock and bond prices in that market. Using this approach for Brazil in August 2004, you would get: • Country Equity risk premium = Default spread on country bond* Country Equity / Country Bond • Standard Deviation in Bovespa (Equity) = 34.56% • Standard Deviation in Brazil C-Bond = 26.34% • Default spread on C-Bond = 6.01% • Country Equity Risk Premium = 6.01% (34.56%/26.34%) = 7.89%

  38. Can country risk premiums change? Updating Brazil – January 2007 and January 2009 • In January 2007, Brazil’s rating had improved to B1 and the interest rate on the Brazilian $ denominated bond dropped to 6.2%. The US treasury bond rate that day was 4.7%, yielding a default spread of 1.5% for Brazil. • Standard Deviation in Bovespa (Equity) = 24% • Standard Deviation in Brazil $-Bond = 12% • Default spread on Brazil $-Bond = 1.50% • Country Risk Premium for Brazil = 1.50% (24/12) = 3.00% On January 1, 2009, Brazil’s rating was Ba1 but the interest rate on the Brazilian $ denominated bond was 6.3%, 4.1% higher than the US treasury bond rate of 2.2% on that day. • Standard Deviation in Bovespa (Equity) = 33% • Standard Deviation in Brazil $-Bond = 20% • Default spread on Brazil $-Bond = 4.1% • Country Risk Premium for Brazil = 4.10% (33/20) = 6.77%

  39. Country Risk Premiums January 2012

  40. From Country Equity Risk Premiums to Corporate Equity Risk premiums • Approach 1: Assume that every company in the country is equally exposed to country risk. In this case, E(Return) = Riskfree Rate + Country ERP + Beta (US premium) Implicitly, this is what you are assuming when you use the local Government’s dollar borrowing rate as your riskfree rate. • Approach 2: Assume that a company’s exposure to country risk is similar to its exposure to other market risk. E(Return) = Riskfree Rate + Beta (US premium + Country ERP) • Approach 3: Treat country risk as a separate risk factor and allow firms to have different exposures to country risk (perhaps based upon the proportion of their revenues come from non-domestic sales) E(Return)=Riskfree Rate+  (US premium) +  (Country ERP) ERP: Equity Risk Premium

  41. Estimating Company Exposure to Country Risk: Determinants • Source of revenues: Other things remaining equal, a company should be more exposed to risk in a country if it generates more of its revenues from that country. A Brazilian firm that generates the bulk of its revenues in Brazil should be more exposed to country risk than one that generates a smaller percent of its business within Brazil. • Manufacturing facilities: Other things remaining equal, a firm that has all of its production facilities in Brazil should be more exposed to country risk than one which has production facilities spread over multiple countries. The problem will be accented for companies that cannot move their production facilities (mining and petroleum companies, for instance). • Use of risk management products: Companies can use both options/futures markets and insurance to hedge some or a significant portion of country risk.

  42. Estimating Lambdas: The Revenue Approach • The easiest and most accessible data is on revenues. Most companies break their revenues down by region.  = % of revenues domesticallyfirm/ % of revenues domesticallyavg firm • Consider, for instance, Embraer and Embratel, both of which are incorporated and traded in Brazil. Embraer gets 3% of its revenues from Brazil whereas Embratel gets almost all of its revenues in Brazil. The average Brazilian company gets about 77% of its revenues in Brazil: • LambdaEmbraer = 3%/ 77% = .04 • LambdaEmbratel = 100%/77% = 1.30 • There are two implications • A company’s risk exposure is determined by where it does business and not by where it is located • Firms might be able to actively manage their country risk exposures • Consider, for instance, the fact that SAP got about 7.5% of its sales in “Emerging Asia”, we can estimate a lambda for SAP for Asia (using the assumption that the typical Asian firm gets about 75% of its revenues in Asia) • LambdaSAP, Asia = 7.5%/ 75% = 0.10

  43. Estimating Lambdas: Earnings Approach

  44. Estimating Lambdas: Stock Returns versus C-Bond Returns ReturnEmbraer = 0.0195 + 0.2681 ReturnC Bond ReturnEmbratel = -0.0308 + 2.0030 ReturnC Bond

  45. Estimating a US Dollar Cost of Equity for Embraer - September 2004 • Assume that the beta for Embraer is 1.07, and that the riskfree rate used is 4.29%. Also assume that the risk premium for the US is 4.82% and the country risk premium for Brazil is 7.89%. • Approach 1: Assume that every company in the country is equally exposed to country risk. In this case, E(Return) = 4.29% + 1.07 (4.82%) + 7.89% = 17.34% • Approach 2: Assume that a company’s exposure to country risk is similar to its exposure to other market risk. E(Return) = 4.29 % + 1.07 (4.82%+ 7.89%) = 17.89% • Approach 3: Treat country risk as a separate risk factor and allow firms to have different exposures to country risk (perhaps based upon the proportion of their revenues come from non-domestic sales) E(Return)= 4.29% + 1.07(4.82%) + 0.27 (7.%) = 11.58%

  46. Valuing Emerging Market Companies with significant exposure in developed markets • The conventional practice in investment banking is to add the country equity risk premium on to the cost of equity for every emerging market company, notwithstanding its exposure to emerging market risk. Thus, in 2004, Embraer would have been valued with a cost of equity of 17.34% even though it gets only 3% of its revenues in Brazil. As an investor, which of the following consequences do you see from this approach? • Emerging market companies with substantial exposure in developed markets will be significantly over valued by equity research analysts. • Emerging market companies with substantial exposure in developed markets will be significantly under valued by equity research analysts. Can you construct an investment strategy to take advantage of the misvaluation?

  47. Implied Equity Premiums • If we assume that stocks are correctly priced in the aggregate and we can estimate the expected cashflows from buying stocks, we can estimate the expected rate of return on stocks by computing an internal rate of return. Subtracting out the riskfree rate should yield an implied equity risk premium. • This implied equity premium is a forward looking number and can be updated as often as you want (every minute of every day, if you are so inclined).

  48. Implied Equity Premiums: January 2008 • We can use the information in stock prices to back out how risk averse the market is and how much of a risk premium it is demanding. • If you pay the current level of the index, you can expect to make a return of 8.39% on stocks (which is obtained by solving for r in the following equation) • Implied Equity risk premium = Expected return on stocks - Treasury bond rate = 8.39% - 4.02% = 4.37%

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