LHE 3311

1. LHE 3311 FALSAFAH MORAL Prof. Emeritus Dr. Abdul Rahman Md Aroff

2. Moral education is a name for nothing clear

3. It is usually supposed that psychology contributes to moral education by telling us appropriate methods of moral teaching and learning (Kohlberg) The domain of the moral begins where the domain of the social begins(Durkheim) The process of (moral) valuing is mainly social. People are influenced by and act in particular social contexts(Superka) “How does the child develop morally?”: There are several accounts/theories of moral development If we do not know what morality is, we cannot teach it (Puka) “What is the (plural) nature of Malaysian society?” “What is ethics?” There are many meanings attributed to morality Disagreement over the conception and function of moral education. i.e. a wide variety of methods proposed and used for the teaching or transmitting of morality

4. BajuWarnaMerah Baju Tan berwarnamerah Harganyamahal Diamembelinyadi Giant Seremban Bajuitucantik Bagaimanapun, bajuitutidaksesuaidipakai Tan dimajlis agama yang dihadirinyasemalam Sebenarnya, bajuitutidakpatutdibelikeranamembelinyatelahmenyebabkan Tan berhutangdengankawannya Dalamkalanganrakan-rakan Tan, bajuberwarnamerahadalahkegemaranmereka

6. FOKUS ETIKA Pernyataan Bukan Moral (estetika, agama, politik, sosial, ekonomi, intelek, material) Normatif (Nilai) Bukan Normatif atau Deskriptif (Fakta) Moral Ciri Fungsi Jenis • Instrumental • Intrinsik • Subjektif • Objektif • Relatif • Mutlak • Nilai ditonjol secara lisan atau perlakuan • Nilai ‘boleh’ berubah • Keutamaan nilai tidak sama bagi individu yang berbeza Satu piawai asas yang tekal, membantu dan mencorak pemikiran, perasaan dan perlakuan kita

7. Which of the following are NORMATIVE statements? • You cannot trust Sandra. • Many adults are attending college today. • Striking workers broke into the plant last night. • Not all racists are white. • A patient with an incompetent doctor is likely to receive poor care.

8. Ethics/morality/kemoralan • Ethical/moral • Metafizik – what is real • Epistemologi – what is knowledge • Axuiologi – aesthetics & ethics

9. Which of the following directives are outside the scope of ethics? • Never shave with a dull blade • Never shoot guns at people • Use deception if it gets what you want • Use a tie that matches your socks • Don’t neglect your family • Don’t take what does not belong to you

10. Which statements express intrinsic / instrumental value? • Pleasure is the only thing that is good in itself. • Money is important not for what it is but for what it can buy. • Self-discipline is important because it purifies the spirit and strengthens the will. • Wisdom is to be sought for its own sake

11. Which of the following are subjective statements? • I don’t like the smell of burning cigar. • Smoking in hospital rooms interferes with the patients’ recovery. • Littering clutters up the environment, poses a risk to public health, and is expensive to clean up. • I don’t approve of littering.

12. ETIKA falsafah etimologi Berfikir sendiri tentang apa itu yang dikatakan baik jahat, benar salah, tanggungjawab atau ‘duty’, tentang apa yang patut atau tidak patut dilakukan, dan sebagainya ‘ethos’ (Yunani) atau ‘mores’ (Latin), iaitu hukum, adat resam, adab, tradisi, budi pekerti, kesusilaan, sopan santun, dan sebagainya falsafah moral Keperibadian PeraturanMasyarakat Teleologi Deontologi KemoralanSosial/Konvensional/Konservatif/Tradisional EtikaKeperibadianMulia(Virtues/Fadhilah) UtilitarianismeEgoisme Emotivisme PrinsipKewajipanEksistensialisme Intuisionisme

13. KEMORALAN SOSIAL Maksud Pematuhankepadaperaturankomuniti yang ditetapkanolehautoritidalammasyarakat, olehitu, keperluanmasyarakat, bukanindividu, merupakanmatlamatetika. Kritikan sekiranyabersifatautoritarian/autokratik, iamelemahkanautonomi, pertimbanganbebassertapilihansukarelaindividudanmengakibatkanindividuitumenurutperintahsecaramembutatuli kehilanganperasaantanggungjawab moral relativismekebudayaanbolehmembawakepadakonflik penguatkuasaanbergantungatasisbat (hukuman) yang bolehhilangkuasanya buatapa yang akusuruh, janganbuatapa yang… bertentangandengan ‘keadilan’ kesukaranmenyesuaikanperaturanmasyarakatdengansituasibaru di persadadunia yang kompleks di manamasadankeadaansentiasaberubahdanterdapatbanyakpersoalan yang menjadidilemabagikebanyakan orang sesetengahperaturanataunormamasyarakatdidapatitidakbermoral

14. Social Morality (conventional/conservative morality or traditionalism in morality) • An externally established code, or a body of fixed and concrete rules as a standard to be rigidly conformed to…there are things that are enjoined and forbidden, approved or disapproved of in a society • A critique ~ in its extreme form, it tends to be authoritarian, dogmatic and doctrinaire, therefore, undermining autonomy as well as independent judgment and voluntary choice, also allows no room for individual criticism of established values, rules and the like

15. criticism of social morality… ~ narrowing of moral concern, i.e. disappearance of a sense of moral responsibility ~cultural relativism which could lead different and incompatible rules to clash ~ moral sanctions may lose their power ~ difficulty in adopting it (being absolutistic) to new situations and changing circumstances ~ may be bad, wrong, unjust or unnecessarily impoverishing of human life

16. KEPERIBADIAN MULIA (VIRTUES) Maksud (Aristotle) Tret karakter dan sifat perangai yang mulia; kecenderungan bertujuan, bukan perasaan; tidak bersifat semula jadi, tetapi dimiliki melalui latihan; dan merupakan suatu jalan tengah. (purposive dispositions or traits of character; neither feelings nor faculties; not engendered in a person by nature; and each virtue constitutes a mean) Jadual Virtues dan Vices Aristotle

17. Kritikan(keperibadian mulia) Nasihat yang sukar dipraktiskan (will not bear the weight of advice, has no practical or advisory force) Sesetengah nilai mulia perlu berada dalam keadaan yang keterlaluan atau hanya ada pertentangan (has no two extremes, it only has an opposite, or an extreme) Kesukaran mengkategorikan sesuatu keperibadian sebagai mulia serta menentukan ciri watak manakah yang paling utama dan yang manakah pula kurang penting (categorization of dispositions as virtues) Sebagai suatu kebiasaan sahaja yang tidak dapat membimbing seseorang dalam situasi luar biasa yang menimbulkan dilema moral (just pleasant habits; complex situations)

18. UTILITARIANISME Maksud Kebahagiaan yang paling banyakkepadasejumlahinsan yang paling ramai (greatest happiness for the greatest number) Baik = Kebahagiaan = Keseronokan Jahat = Kedukaan = Kesakitan (Good = Happiness = Pleasure Evil = Unhappiness = Pain) Pleasure seeker = hedonist consequentialsim

19. (kritikan - utilitarianisme) Manusia dikuasai oleh keseronokan dan kesakitan, dan kemoralan ialah usaha mencari kebahagiaan iaitu keseronokan, dan kebencian terhadap kesakitan (vs) masochist; kesakitan, bapa kepada keseronokan Pengalaman keseronokan mestilah dimaksimumkan dan kesakitan diminimumkan (vs) Menghukum orang tak berdosa, 9 atau 10?, irihati/tamak, oleh itu berkonflik dengan keadilan atau matlamat menghalalkan cara Semua sensasi terdiri daripada sama ada keseronokan atau kesakitan yang bertentangan (vs) subjektif dan kabur. Mengaitkan keseronokan dengan kebaikan (vs) kebaikan = kebebasan, kesihatan > keseronokan; sadist, vandals = jahat = seronok! Menyamakan keseronokan dengan kebahagiaan (vs) kebahagiaan tak khusus tetapi kepuasan yang agak kekal dan mendalam; a life of pleasure=a happy life? Seronok maksimum (vs) bilangan maksimum? Yang baik (keseronokan) dan yang jahat (kesakitan) yang disukat (vs) Urusan yang menyukarkan:kuantiti, kualiti, masa/tempat, anatara individu

20. Hedonism, human nature? Masochist? An obstacle? • Maximise pleasure, minimise pain - scapegoat, 9 or 10, greedy and envious, therefore, conflict with justice! • Subjective and not contradictory • G=P<Health/Wisdom/Freedom; Sadists/Vandals=P=E • H=P? • Hedonic Calculus

21. EGOISME maksud Sebagai agen moral tanggungjawab tunggal individu ialah memperolehi seberapa banyak keuntungan untuk diri sendiri Sebagai penasihat moral (selaku orang kedua/pihak ketiga) dalam membuat pertimbangan, dia juga mesti mengutamakan keuntungan bagi dirinya sendiri. Standard/ukuran untuk baik = menguntungkan diri sendiri; dan jahat = merugikan diri sendiri

22. egoism • As a moral agent, the one and only moral responsibility of the individual is to gain as much benefit as possible for him/herself • As a moral advisor, in making judgment, the individual must also focus on the benefits for him/herself Standard for good = benefits oneself; evil = harms oneself

23. Kritikan(egoisme) Eksploitasi, tidakperlubermasyarakatdantaatkepadaautoriti, membenciperaturan, organisasidanmenentangpengorbanandiriuntukkecekapan, kekuatandankemajuanvssifatsemulajadimanusia? Jepun! Binatang liar/buas Untukwira/superman terushidupdanterdorongdiamemerlukanmusuh, cabarandanpenentangandaripadaorangkebanyakan yang mestidibelenggu Tidakdapatmemuaskanprinsipsejagat Menentangperaturanmutlaksesuatuautoritidanmemperakuihanyaperaturan yang bersifatindividualistik, iaitumenurutperaturansendiriadalahbermoral (prudentialism) vs altruism Tidakdapatdiuar-uarkan Tidakdapatmenjalinhubungan Tanggungjawabsejarahdalamkebangkitanpergerakan Nazi

24. a critique of egoism • Exploitation, no need for organisation and loyalty to authority, hatred for rules, and is against self sacrifice for power and progress vs human nature? Japan! animal kingdom. • A paradox - a superman weakening his challenger • Another paradox - cannot satisfy the universality principle • Recognises only rules that are individualistic in nature, prudentialism vs altruism • Cannot be announced • Cannot sustain relationship • Nazism

25. Eksistensialismekewujudanmendahuluizatdanperubahanadalahkekal. Olehitu, individu yang kewujudannyaauthentic,bebassepenuhnyabuatapa yang diasukadalammenguruskandirisendiri; tiadaapapun yang bolehmembataskankebebasannyauntukmemilihdanmenentukansendiritujuan, sikap, nilaidancarahidupnya; segala-galanyadiizinkan; tiadahukumataunilai kudus/objektif yang wajibdipatuhi; nilaibersifatsubjektif, individualistikdantertaklukkepadasituasi; yang lepasdan yang akandatangtidakpenting. Sekiranyaindividuitutidakmahu ‘freedom of choice’, makadiahidupdalam ‘nothingness’ dandiamempunyaipandangan yang penuhdenganmitostentangkemoralan (bad faith = kepercayaanpalsu)

26. Kritikan (eksistensialisme) Menjadikan tindakan seseorang itu benar dengan hanya memilih tindakan itu – menggalakkan relativisme individu Kemungkinan yang dipilih adalah yang desired, commended dan praised, bukan yang desirable, commendable, praiseworthy Tanpa matlamat, ideal atau norma, ia tidak membimbing dan memberitahu individu apa yang patut dibuat, individu itu is left hanging in the air atau terawang-awang Keputusan first hand biasanya membebankan dan makan masa Mustahil, dari segi psikologi, wujudnya freedom of choice

27. other related criticisms… • encourages individual relativism (I don’t care what others say!) • maybe what is chosen is desired, commended or praised, but not somethingwhich isdesirable, commendableorpraiseworthy • exacting and demanding • left hanging in the air • its not possible, psychologically or physiologically, for freedom of choice to exist

28. Kantianism – Prinsip Kewajipan (Duty) Maksud tumpuan kemoralan ialah kepada niat atau tujuan, dan motif kemoralan bukanlah untuk memuaskan kecenderungan, tetapi motifnya ialah duty for duty’s sake. Kecuali tekad baik, tiada yang baik tanpa syarat, dan individu yang mempunyai tekad baik ialah individu yang sentiasa bertindak atas dasar kewajipan yang diperihalkan sebagai satu set categorical imperatives, iaitu kesejagatan, kemanusiaan (respect) dan kerasionalan

29. Kritikan (Kantianisme) Tidak boleh berlandaskan kecenderungan Prinsip terlalu am, tiada kecualian Tiada panduan untuk memutuskan perselisihan antara kewajipan Kurang kritis tentang konsep yang mungkin mempunyai makna yang tersendiri dan berbeza kepada orang yang berlainan

30. EMOTIVISME • Moral judgements often serve to express the feelings of the speaker; moral discourse is primarily influential, i.e. the moral statement of the speaker is an instrument to control, redirect and modify the attitude of the speaker’s audience. This is the purpose of emotivism, and it is the central thesis of emotivism. • Moral words have emotive meanings, because they appeal to the feelings or the emotions.

31. kritikan • Irrationalistic views about ethical judgements, i.e. undermine the rationality of morals • To ‘influence’ - this purpose is in no way distinctive of moral discourse; for, the mass media, political speeches, threats, bribes, and so on, can also create an influence. Moral discourse has not necessarily and not always this purpose; one can still talk about morality wit or to those who already have the ‘attitude’ to be promoted, and this moral discourse need not be less moral for that. • Some moral terms such as ‘heroic’ and ‘vicious’ are somewhat emotive, there are also many moral terms such as ‘good’, ‘generous’, ‘ought’, and ‘honest’ which are not emotionally stirring. Moral opinion, advice, and such like, can be expressed by a person without him being in state of moral excitement. Equally, a piece of discourse may be highly emotive but unconcerned with morals.

32. INTUITIONISME • The view that normal human beings have an immediate awareness of moral values; a form of self-perception or moral sense. There are moral truths which, when known, are known by intuition; and, if we do not know them, our defect of intuition is comparable either to a defect of physical insight or of intellectual discernment. Anthropological and psychological evidence seems to be against the existence of such a faculty (wangi/busuk, gelap/terang, panas/sejuk); that this faculty does not exist can also be shown by everyday experience of disagreement about what is right or wrong in particular situations.

33. cont… • Moral discourse is unique and cannot be reduced to non-moral discourse without loss or change of meaning By making the whole topic sui generis, by saying that moral terms and judgements are simply indefinable and self-evident (yellow is yellow), intuitionism has emptied moral theory of all content. Moral truths were, it seemed, such that nothing could possibly be said about what they meant, what their grounds were, or even why they mattered at all.

34. Peraturan Masyarakat(Rules of society) BENTUK (Form) KANDUNGAN (Content/Substance) The morally mature/educated person Etika Berprinsip(Principalistic Ethics) Keperibadian Mulia(Virtues) Perasaan Moral(Moral Emotions) Pentaakulan Moral (Moral Reasoning) Perlakuan Moral(Moral Action) DIMENSI (3 dimensions: head heart,hand)

35. Kandungan Moral peraturan masyarakat ~memajukan kebajikan dan kestabilan serta survival masyarakat kerana tercapainya kedamaian, kerukunan dan social order ~menjimatkan masa dan tenaga ~tindak balas terhadap masyarakat yang permissive keperibadian mulia ~mengandungi cara bagaimana seseorang itu patut mengikuti peraturan masyarakatnya ~berfaedah kepada individu yang memilikinya serta menguntungkan orang lain yang ada hubungan dengan individu itu

36. Bentuk Moral prinsip > situasi ~mengurangkan relativisme dalam soal moral ~prinsip (keadilan & kepedulian) tidak ketepikan situasi Mengapa keadilan & kepedulian? ~nilai asas; ibu nilai; akal dan hati

37. dimensijika tidak ada… TM EM TLM TM - impersonalcakap kosong; kelemahan moral; cakap tak serupa bikin, EM irrational - perasaan menenangkan diri sendiri TLM taat membabi impersonal buta; tanggung- - jawab moral diabaikan

38. Individu yang pekasertamemahamitentangkeperluanterhadapperaturantertentudalamkomunitidanmempunyaikeperibadian yang sesuaiuntukdiahidupsejahteradalamkomunitiitu.Diaberhati-hatimembuatpertimbangan/keputusanberdasarkanprinsipkeadilansertaperasaankepeduliandandenganpenuhtanggungjawabjugaakauntabilitimengambiltindakan yang wajar.Diajugaberkebolehanmenelitisituasidalammenanganiisu moral. Selainitudiaberketrampilanmerungkai (problem-setter) konflik moral dalammembuatkeputusan yang ‘informed’ danterbaik (problem-solver).

39. Objektif Pend Moral 1983 • KBSR • Mengamalkan tabiat dan tingkah laku yang selaras dengan sikap dan nilai moral; • Meneyedari tentang nilai yang sedia ada dalam masyarakat sekelilingnya; • Mempunyai nilai moral sebagai asas memperkembangkan kematangan pemikiran; • Membuat pertimbangan sebelum mengamalkan sesuatu tingkah laku, berasaskan prinsip moral; dan • Mengemukakan sebab yang rasional dalam membuat sesuatu keputusan yang berkaitan dengan isu moral.

40. KBSM 1. memperkukuh dan mempertingkat amalan tabiat dan tingkah laku yang selaras dengan sikap dan nilai moral yang diperolehi pada peringkat sekolah rendah; 2. menyedari, memahami dan menghayati norma dan nilai murni masyarakat Malaysia; 3. membentuk pemikiran yang rasional berasaskan prinsip-prinsip moral; 4. memberi sebab-sebab yang munasabah berdasarkan pertimbangan moral dalam membuat sesuatu keputusan; dan 5. menggunakan pertimbangan yang berlandaskan prinsip-prinsip moral sebagai panduan dalam amalan kehidupan seharian.

41. tambahan dapat mencari dan mengaplikasikan pengetahuan fakta yang perlu dan relevan sebagai asas dalam membuat pertimbangan dan keputusan moral yang ‘informed’

42. sekian

43. naratif/bercerita; lakonan/drama; simulasidanpermainan; dialog; temuramah; ucapan/pidato; bengkel; puisis; perbincangan; forum; debat; ceramah; memainkanperanan; laporan/laporkembali; interaksidengangambar, filem, pita, APD yang lain; melukis; lawatan; projek; strategimenulis; dll.

44. EDU 3003 PertemuanPertama Konsep-konsepasasdalametika Teori-teorietika PertemuanKedua Nilai-nilai (agama/kepercayaan) Masyarakat Malaysia Isu-isu Moral Insan yang Matangdarisegi Moral

45. penilaian • PeperiksaanPertengahan Semester 40% • Tugasan 20% • PeperiksaanAkhir Semester 40% (TajukTugasan: Pilihsatuisu moral dankupaskanpandangan yang menyokongdan yang menetangisuberkenaan. Apakah pula pendiriananda?)

46. In Kant’s view, the following do not constitute the principle of morality • The notion of prudence (egoism) • The notion of benevolence (utilitarianism) • Talents of the mind (intelligence, wit, judgement) • Gifts of nature (power, wealth, honour) • Qualities of temperament (courage, resolution, constancy of purpose) • Other qualities (such as self-control, sober reflection, moderation in affections and passions)

47. Why? They are desirable in many respects. But they are far from being described properly as good without qualifications; for, in certain circumstances, they can also be bad and hurtful, i.e. when they are used with a bad will.

48. In addition, according to Kant, in morality the focus is placed on one’s motives/intentions, rather than upon what one actually does What motives make a good will good are not inclinations, whether natural or otherwise, whether or not they are related to self-interest or to altruistic motives. Acting from mere inclination or for the purpose of gratifying one’s inclinations has no moral worth.

49. as pointed out by MacIntyre (1976) Kant never dwells upon the difference between inclinations to act in one way rather than another; the whole contrast is between duty upon the one hand and inclination of every kind upon the other. For inclination belongs to our… nature; we cannot in Kant’s view choose our inclinations. What we can do is to choose between our inclinations and our duty.

50. The good will’s only motive is, to do its duty simply for the sake of doing its duty – a will is good because of what it is inwardly. It is duty for duty’s sakethat is good and worthy of moral praise, and to do one’s duty for its own sake is also to act reasonably out of respect for the law. As Kant says, “Duty is the necessity to act out of reverence for the law”.