Chapter 8

1. Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion

2. MODULE 24 - Explaining Motivation How does motivation direct and energize behavior?

3. Instinct Approaches: Born to be Motivated Motivation: The factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms Behavioral, cognitive, and social aspects Instincts: Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned

4. Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs Suggest that a lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need Drive: Motivation tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need Primary drives Secondary drives

5. Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs Homeostasis: Body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state Underlies primary drives Uses feedback loops Need for food, water, stable body temperature, and sleep

6. Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction Belief that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal they seek out

7. Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives Internal drives proposed by drive-reduction theory work in tandem with the: External incentives of incentive theory to “push” and “pull” behavior

8. Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation Suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation

9. Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs Certain primary needs must be satisfied before moving onto the higher order of needs Self-actualization: State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own way

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is important for two reasons: Highlights complexity of human needs Emphasizes that until basic biological needs are met, people will be unconcerned about higher-order needs

11. Figure 3 - Maslow’s Hierarchy

12. Other Approaches to Motivation Deci and Ryan (2008) Self-determination theory - People have three basic needs: Competence Autonomy Relatedness

13. Major Approaches to Motivation Instinct Drive Reduction Arousal Incentive Cognitive Hierarchy of Needs

14. MODULE 25 - Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring What biological and social factors underlie hunger? What are the varieties of sexual behavior? How are needs relating to achievement, affiliation, and power motivation exhibited?

15. The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating Obesity: Body weight is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a certain height Body mass index (BMI) - Based on a ratio of weight to height

16. Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger Changes in the chemical composition of the blood Glucose levels Insulin Ghrelin

17. Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger Hypothalamus Monitors glucose levels Lateral hypothalamus Ventromedial hypothalamus Weight set point: Particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain Metabolism: Rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body

18. Social Factors in Eating Societal Rules Cultural Influences Individual Habits Operant Conditioning

19. The Roots of Obesity Oversensitivity to external eating cues Insensitivity to internal hunger cues Higher weight set points Leptin Fat cells in the body Rate of weight gain during the first four months of life is related to being overweight during later childhood Settling points

20. Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa: Refusal to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance are unusual Bulimia Disorder in which people binge on large quantities of food Followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting

21. Sexual Motivation Androgens: Male sex hormones secreted by the testes Genitals: Male and female sex organs Estrogens: Class of female sex hormones Progesterone: A female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries Ovulation: The point at which an egg is released from the ovaries

22. Sexual Motivation Masturbation: Solitary sex Heterosexuality: Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex Double standard: The view that premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females Extramarital sex: Sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse

23. Sexual Motivation Homosexuals: Persons who are sexually attracted to members of their own sex Bisexuals: Persons who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex Transsexuals: People who believe they were born with the body of the other gender

24. The Need for Achievement: Striving for Excellence Stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and achieving challenging goals People who have a high need for achievement, avoid situations in which success will come too easily or unlikely to come People with low achievement motivation tend to be motivated primarily by a desire to avoid failure

25. The Need for Achievement: Striving for Excellence Measuring achievement motivation Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT) Examiner shows a series of ambiguous pictures Tells participants to write a story that describes what is happening Researchers use a standard scoring system to determine the amount of achievement imagery in people’s stories

26. The Need for Affiliation:Striving for Friendship An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people Gender is a great determinant of how much time is spent with friends

27. The Need for Power:Striving for Impact on Others Tendency to seek control or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual Significant gender differences exist in the display of need for power

28. MODULE 26 - Understanding Emotional Experiences What are emotions, and how do we experience them? What are the functions of emotions? What are the explanations for emotions? How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of emotions?

29. Introduction Emotions: Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements Influence behavior

30. The Functions of Emotions Preparing us for Action Shaping our Future Behavior Helping us Interact more Effectively with Others

31. Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings Researchers suggest that emotions include: Happiness Anger Fear Sadness Disgust

32. Figure 1 - Hierarchy of Emotions

33. The Roots of Emotions The James-Lange theory Emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation Drawbacks Visceral changes would have to occur relatively quickly Physiological arousal does not invariably produce emotional experience Internal organs produce a relatively limited range of sensations

34. The Roots of Emotions The Cannon-Bard theory Physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus

35. The Roots of Emotions The Schachter-Singer theory Emotions are determined by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation Based on environmental cues Supports a cognitive view of emotions

36. Figure 2 - Comparison of the Three Models

37. The Roots of Emotions Contemporary perspectives on the neuroscience of emotions Neural pathways connect the: Amygdala Visual cortex Hippocampus

38. The Roots of Emotions Making sense of the multiple perspectives on emotion Emotions are complex phenomena, encompassing both biological and cognitive aspects No single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of emotional experience

39. Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly? Facial-affect program: Activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression Facial-feedback hypothesis: Hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions