The shaping of occupations: Towards a context-sensitive analysis

1. The shaping of occupations: Towards a context-sensitive analysis Lea Henriksson Tampere School of Public Health University of Tampere

2. The purpose of the presentation 1. To readdress and reflect one theoretical background important to my research on the politics of professionalisation in health work * What kind of a field is the sociology of work and occupations (WO)? 2. By introducing WO I also aim at inspiring reflection on the multidisciplinary backgrounds of VET-research * How to create dialogue with research traditions? *How to make this dialogue visible? 3. On contextualisation: reflecting the shaping or formation of occupations in societal context * How to contextualise the research and at the same time keep firmly focused?

3. The perspective of sociology of work and occupations (WO) Sociology of work and occupations A review of WO studies by Andrew Abbott (1993) Research material: Sociological Abstracts 1990-1991 (500 articles, 70 dissertations) 2) Outlining a multi-layered, context-sensitive analysis

4. Situating the field of WO: The two ancestries • Chicago style ecological institutionalism, processual approach to occupyations (Hughes) • Social psychological focus WO has been in isolation of other research on work, e.g. economic literature, labour history, social history.

5. ”sociology of occupations and professions” career/life cycle issues gender inequalities ”industrial and labour relations” jobs, workplaces work organisations unions The literature of sociology of work and occupations (WO) is divided into two ”sides”(Abbott 1993)

6. The foci of analysis in WO studies After World War II: professions were the central focus, little on blue collar work 1950’s a shift to individualism and psychological concerns (job satisfaction, alienation); the rise of statistics meant a move from institutional or structural accounts towards individualist ones; new interest in careers

7. The foci of analysis • 1960’sstratification, occupational status mobility and a set of individual determinants • 1970’s main stream: genderdeterminants; but also institutionalists made use of historical work, historical sociology (”theoretical, structural, leftist”) • 1980’s the study of professions, mobility and gender (labour market defined in terms of individual)

8. Topics of WO: 1990-91 • Gender,job satisfaction, career choices, discrimination, harassment, work & family, • Wages, inequalities, race, status: women managers • Unemployment: labour market mobility, comparable worth; • Unions & labour relations: the wave of worker participation schemes is over • Work & culture: a future topic ! • Professions: case studies, comparisons, but theorizing still dominates

9. Broadly defined WO articles are publiched in • sociology journals (about 50%) • psychology journals (9%) • economics journals (7%) • business journals (6%) • education, law, antropology (2-4%) • a variety of other areas (about 14%)

10. Occupations under study(54 articles) lawyers (27), nurses (25), teachers (22), university faculty (22), engineers (16), social workers (13), miners (12), scientists (9) and journalists (6)

11. The shaping of occupations: elements of analysis (I) • occupations could only be studied within an interacting system (interactionist frame) • the framework includes not only history, culture and social structure but also intra-, inter- and transprofessional forces (broad context) • the system also includes ’less-than-professionals’ (Hughes 1958 Stacey 1984) • (inclusive concepts)

12. The shaping of occupations: elements of analysis (II) • the shaping of an occupationsis matter of complex conjunctures (a combination of events and circumstances) although linear studies still dominate • gendered dynamics: gender is more than being female • Abbott calls for politicised tone instead of intellectually sterile work

13. Towards a context-sensitive approach: from macro to micro contexts Supra-national level • Global market, New Public Management & post-occupational society: employable, flexible worker, retrenchment policies • EU integration: easily movable labour force (e.g. integration of degrees) • economic and cultural integration in Nordic countries: Nordic labour market • international cultural & moral orders (e.g the nightingalean order)

14. National level / context • occupations related to national projects, occupational citizenship • national retrenchment policies, welfare policies: state & occupations • gendered division of labor in society • trades, education structures, governing of occupations • class, regional and ethnic divisions • historical and cultural roots/images of occupations

15. Meso level / context Inter-, intra- and transprofessional relationships • formal – informal: professional work – ”less-than-professional work” (auxiliary and amateur work) • the order of occupations • ”grade-mix”, hierarchies, specialisation, segmentation • professionalism & unionism: elitist policies or social rights, professional projects • occupational ethics, culture and identity

16. Micro level / context • occupational life histories, occupational generations • occupational paths, career choices • lived experience, personal meanings • micro-politics: internalised control, ’apropriate’ work identities, professionalism as a disciplinary mechanism

17. The shaping of an occupation is • embedded in historical, social and cultural context • includes gendered dynamics Occupational development is a process of othering (Davies 2002); politics of selection (Davies 1995); occupational closure (Witz 1990) In the process vertical and hierarchical divisions are created: centres & periferies, hearlands & margins, insiders & outsiders

18. The core of the processes of occupational shaping Struggles on occupational boundaries (division of labour) and struggles for’appropriate’ identities (who are the right ones to let in & whose ”calling” is the right one)

19. References Abbott, Andrew (1993) The sociology of work and occupations. Annu.Rev.Sociol 19:187-209. Burau, Viola, Henriksson, Lea & Wrede, Sirpa (2003) Doing comparison on professionals groups: towards a context sensitive analysis. Knowledge, Work and Society (fortcoming, vol 1, nro 1) TARKASTA NIMI Burrage, M & Torstendahl R (eds.) Professions in Theory and History. Rethinking the Study of Professions. London: Sage. Davies, Celia (1979) Comparative occupational roles in health care. Soc.Sci & Med. Vol 13A, 515-521. Davies, Celia (1995) Gender and Professional Predicament in Nursing. Buckingham: Open University Press. Davies, Celia (2002) ETSI! Hellberg, Inga, Saks, Mike & Benoit, Celia (1995) (eds.) Professional Identities in Transition. Södertälje: Almqvist & Wiksell International. Henriksson, Lea (2001) Gendering the theories on professions. In Gonon et al (eds.) Gender perspectives on Vocational Education – Historical, Cultural and Policy Aspects. Bern: Peter Lang. Henriksson, Lea, Wrede, Sirpa & Burau, Viola (submitted January 2002). Opening up the context. Towards a comparative study of welfare service work. Gender, Work & Organisations. Hughes, Everett (1958) Men and their work. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Olsen, Ole Johnny et al (2002) The recruitment crisis in care sector ???. Project proposal for NOS-S. January 2002. (unpublished) Rantalaiho, Liisa (1997) Contextualising gender. In Rantalaiho, Liisa & Heiskanen, Tuula (eds.) Gendered Practices of Working Life. London: Macmillan. Reverby, Susan (1987) Ordered to Care. The Dilemma of American Nursing 1850-1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stacey, Margaret (1984) Who are the health workers? Patients and other unpaid workers in health care. Economic and Industrial Democracy. Special Issue on the Public Sector, 5, 2, 157-184. Witz, Ann (1990) Patriarchy and professions: The gendered politics of occupational closure. Sociology 24,4, 675-690)