EARLY COGNITIVE FOUNDATINS: SENSATION, PERCEPTION, AND LEARNING

1. EARLY COGNITIVE FOUNDATINS: SENSATION, PERCEPTION, AND LEARNING

2. Cognitive Development thru Sensation and Perception • Sensation—Detection of stimuli by the sensory receptors and transmission of this information to the brain. • Perception—The process by which we categorize and interpret sensory input.

3. Theoretical Views of Objective Reality • Enrichment Theory: Individuals possess cognitive resources (schemes) which make them capable of engaging the environment. • Initial sensory stimulation is ambiguous and unclear. • Continued re-exposure creates scheme reformation as individuals engage their environments and develop more complex schemes.

4. Differentiation Theory • Sensory stimulation provides all we need to interpret our experiences. • Our task as perceivers is to detect the differentiating information (distinctive features) that enable us to discriminate one form of experience from another. • View developed by Eleanor Gibson

5. Unlocking the Infant Box • Conclusive findings present a challenge when it comes to the precursors to infant cognitive development • Sensation and perception • Methodological Tools Are Essential To Securing Reliability and Validity Concerns

6. Techniques For Understanding Children • The Preference Method: Procedure in which two stimuli are presented simultaneously to determine which stimuli the infant focuses on. Developed by Robert Fantz • The Habituation Method: Presentation of one stimuli until the infant habituates; upon habituation, a second stimuli is presented to determine if the infant dishabituates. • Methods generally used to determine infant’s sensory and perceptual capabilities.

7. Techniques continued • Evoked Potentials: Children are presented with a particular stimuli and their brain waves are recorded. • Generally used to determine what areas of the brain are stimulated upon stimuli presentation. • High-Amplitude Sucking: Special pacifiers containing electrical circuitry measure variation in sucking patterns upon stimuli presentation.High bursts of sucking may be a signal for stimuli presentation (desirable film), little sucking caused the stimuli to go away. (Operant conditioning)

8. Development of Pattern Perception • Stimulus Seekers (birth to 3 months) • Scan the environment • Visually explore detectable stimuli • Form Constructors (3 to 6 months) • Scanning becomes more systematic • Perceive a variety of forms • Can detect “subjective contours” • Can infer “wholeness” of a partially hidden object from its synchronized movement • Form Interpreters (9 to 12 months/older) • Can discriminate a variety of emotional expressions • Can infer meaningful structure (e.g., human form) from minimal information • Engage in social referencing

9. Infant Sensory Capabilities • Although vision is our least developed sense, infants display varying capabilities to distinguish between faces and some colors. • Significant gains towards later years. • Initially, vision is very blurry (20/600). • Poor ability to discriminate basic colors until 2 months • By one year, they see as well as adults.

10. Hearing • Infants develop a sensitivity to voice tones (prefer higher pitches, soft sounds are undetectable). • Studies have revealed that infants are capable of recognizing their mother’s voice. High amplitude sucking method. • Infants also have a sensitivity to sounds/ language development. • According to Eimas (1975, 1985), 2 to 3 month old infants could distinguish consonant sounds that are similar (for example, ba and pa). • By 3 to 6 months, infants are actually better than adults at perceiving certain sounds that are not language oriented. Infants also become capable (4.5 months) at responding when they hear their name being called.

11. Touch, Temperature, and Pain • Infants definitely have a sensitivity to touch. • Premature babies develop better when stroked or massaged. • Thru touch, infants engage the environment. • Taste/Smell: Infants generally prefer sweet over sour, bitter, or salty. • Sweet substances have been found to reduce crying and produce smiles and smacking of the lips. • Infants 1 to 2 weeks old have been found to recognize the mom through smell.

12. Visual Perception in Infancy • (0-2months) Sight is very limited. • Ability to see is limited to things that have high contrast and/or distinctive characteristics (curvilinear shapes). • (2-12months) Infants are better at discriminating objects from the environment.

13. Vision, Perception, and Attraction • Infant preferences for attractive faces can be detected as early as 3 months in infants. • Findings are weaker when infants have caregivers who are unattractive. • Infants demonstrate a greater disposition towards interaction and play when exposed to attractive faces as oppose to unattractive faces. • What is attraction and how does it develop among infants? • Could attraction be a factor for stranger anxiety when in the absence of parents? • How important is attraction to shaping human interaction and child outcomes?

14. Exploring Intermodal Development • Infants use one sense (e.g., hearing, touch) to recognize an object that is familiar through another sense (e.g., vision). • Infants are able to recognize instances when our senses provide contradictory information. • Physical, Cognitive, & Socio-Emotions Outcomes

15. Four Consequences of Operant Conditioning • Reinforcer. Any consequence of an act that increases the probability that the act will recur. • Positive Reinforcer. Any stimulus whose presentation, as a consequence of an act, increases the probability that the act will recur. • Negative Reinforcer. Any stimulus whose removal or termination, as the consequence of an act, increases the probability that the act will recur. • Punisher. Any consequence of an act that suppresses the response and decreases the probability that it will recur. • A punishing consequence that involves the presentation of something unpleasant following a behavior. • A punishing consequence that involves the removal of something pleasant following a behavior.

16. Examples of Conditioning Outcomes: Reinforcers Strengthen/ Punishment Suppresses • Positive Reinforcer • Attention may strengthen being pleasant and polite • Hugs may strengthen cooperation and seeking contact • Negative Reinforcer • Avoidance of a scolding may strengthen the child’s coming home on time • Avoidance of their child’s tantrum in the store by buying a treat strengthens parent treat-buying behavior • Positive Punishment • A scolding ay suppress fighting with brother • A costly speeding ticket may suppress speeding • Negative Punishment • Loss of allowance may suppress “forgetting” to do chores • Removal to bedroom may suppress returning home late

17. Making Punishment/Corrective Behavior Effective • Confront the undesirable behavior as soon as possible • Be consistent • Be otherwise warm and accepting • Consider alternatives to physical punishment • Reinforce alternative behavior • Provide explanations for why the behavior was wrong and suggest what the child might do differently in the future

18. Possible Side Effects of Aversive Controls • Child may avoid the punisher • Anxiety generated may prevent the child’s learning the intended lesson • Child’s resentment may make the child uncooperative and difficult to control • Child may imitate adult’s aggressive means of dealing with a situation • Punisher may be reinforced by the temporary effectiveness of punitive measures and become a habitual punisher • Misbehavior may escalate if the only attention a child gets is that accompanying punishment