解釋架構 Schema

1. 解釋架構Schema • 我們對於世界的認知大多為不專注，不須深思熟慮的半意識活動。我們依賴一套結構化的先驗知識系統(highly structured, pre-existing knowledge system)來解釋世界並作為我們行為的依據。 研究方法

2. 個人對於外在世界的解釋架構 解釋架構認知結構 觀察認知 外在事件 解釋 對於行為及事件的因果關係之解釋 學習、約定成俗的信仰與社會化、權威 修正既有的解釋架構 研究方法

3. 解釋架構的好處 • 由於過去經驗的累積，行動者通常已經理出一套不可言傳（tacit knowledge）的行為方式。 Schema使我們用相同的方式來處理同類的情境，這些做事通則幫我們省去不少時間。讓我們不必花腦筋在熟悉的情境上，可撥出更多的注意力於複雜、多變的事物中。 • Business Intuition 研究方法

4. 解釋架構不但影響你對世界的了解也影響世界 • 對人性的假設影響人性 人性human nature 對行為、人性的假設：學生都是懶惰被動的，必須以嚴格的要求及監督來改變其行為 學生無法養成自動學習的習慣 對待人的方式：每週小考、上課點名、重修 研究方法

5. 賣花女與淑女的差異 • George Bernard Shaw: PygmalionEliza: “Apart from the things anyone can pick up (the dressing and the proper way of speaking, and so on), the difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves, but how she’s treated.” • Pygmalion in the Classroom： • 告訴小學老師20%的班上學童顯示出「特殊的智性潛力」。八個月後這些學童的IQ成績大幅成長。 研究方法

6. 解釋架構的不完美 觀察能力須要透過學習不是與生俱來的能力 開車車距 科學家開研討會的實驗 測量工具的不精準:態度與行為的不一致 工作滿意度、客戶滿意度及購買意願 先驗的解釋架構對觀察的影響 個人文化背景對觀察的影響(棒球vs.鬥牛;罪犯vs.農夫） 研究方法

7. 解釋架構的不完美：對資訊解釋及溝通的誤謬 語言對意義的干擾 代表語意與隱含意義：兩車相撞的試驗 語言的脈絡可以引導錯誤的邏輯 A：我有兩個小孩 Ｂ：沒關係 Ａ：我還有一隻狗 Ｂ：哪可不行 研究方法

8. 解釋架構的不完美：知識權威 約定成俗的傳統權威 猩猩的香蕉的試驗 群體權威與從眾行為 實驗室排隊 專業權威 最低工資與就業率 電擊試驗 研究方法

9. 缺乏檢證的解釋架構可能將我們導入歧途 解釋架構變成通則： • “愈晚離開辦公室的員工愈認真、勤勞” • 愈晚離開辦公室的員工做事愈不得法、愈沒效率“ 研究方法

10. The Icarus Paradox • 組織興衰的生命週期十分相似。 研究方法

11. What are the goals of theory? • 實證科學的傳統 • Prediction • Understanding • To predict phenomena, we must have an explanation of why variables behave as they do. Theories provide these explanations. 研究方法

12. The Meaning of Theory • A theory is a coherent set of general propositions命題used to explain the apparent relationships among certain observed phenomena. Theories allow generalizations beyond individual facts or situations. 研究方法

13. Concepts-the building block of theory • Concepts (概念）--A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes; an abstraction of reality that is the basic unit for theory development. • Concepts are created by classifying and categorizing分門別類objects or events that have common characteristics共同性質beyond the single observation. 研究方法

14. Concepts-the building block of theory • Concepts abstract reality and may vary in degree of abstraction • The abstract level--in theory development, the level of knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an idea or a quality apart from an object. • Empirical level--level of knowledge reflecting that which is verifiable by experience or observation. 研究方法

15. Concepts-the building block of theory • Identify two concepts from the following statement: “Older workers prefer different rewards than younger workers.” • two concepts -- age of worker and reward preference. • Researchers are concerned with the observable world (reality). Theorists translate their conceptualization of reality into abstract ideas. Things are not the essence of theory: ideas are. Concepts in isolation are not theories. Only when we explain how concepts relate to other concepts do we begin to construct theories. 研究方法

16. Problems in concept use概念在使用上的問題 • people differ in the meanings they include under the particular label. • leadership • motivation • personality • social class • organizational commitment組織忠誠度 • The success of research hinges on (1) how clearly we conceptualize and (2) how well others understand the concepts we use. 研究方法

17. Variable • A variable is a special kind of concept. They are at the empirical level and may assume different numerical values. • Social Science involves the study of variables and the attributes that compose them. • Attributes or values are characteristics or qualities that describe an object • Variables are logical groupings of attributes • Male/female are attributes, sex or gender are the variables composed of those two attributes. 研究方法

18. Operationalization • Operations involved in measuring a variable. An operational definition is one stated in terms of specific testing criteria or operations用可操作的或可測量的標準來定義. These terms must have empirical referents經驗的對象 (that is, we must be able to count, measure, or in some other way gather the information through our senses能用感官去蒐集的資訊). • Operationalize the following concepts: • Firm size • The degree of competition in the market • family's total income 研究方法

19. Operationalization • A concept and the operational definition are NOT the same thing概念不等同於操作型定義.Operational definitions provide only limited insight into what a concept really is. 研究方法

20. Nature of proposition • Propositions (命題) are statements concerned with the relationship among concepts. A proposition explains the logical linkage among concepts by asserting a universal connection between concepts. • Theories are networks of propositions (relationships between propositions). 研究方法

21. Hypothesis • A hypothesis is specified expectations about empirical reality, derived from proposition. It is an unproven proposition or supposition that tentatively explains certain facts or phenomenon; it is empirically testable. • A variable is a special kind of concept. They are at the empirical level and may assume different numerical values. 研究方法

22. What is a good hypothesis? • the hypothesis must be testable • The hypothesis must be better than its rivals • the hypothesis must be simple, requiring few conditions or assumptions. 研究方法

23. Hypothesis are the empirical counterpart of propositions Proposition Abstract level Concept ADegree of demographic heterogeneity Concept BSocial integration Empirical level Hypothesis Age, education, gender, seniority variation Turnover, communication, conflicts 研究方法

24. A basic theory explaining voluntary job turnover Labor market conditions, number of organizations, personal characteristics…etc. Perceived ease of movement Job performance Intentions to quit Perceived desirability of movement (job satisfaction) Pay, job complexity, participation in decision making…etc. Job turnover 研究方法

25. A note on the difference between theories and models • A model is definedas a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspect of that system or the system as a whole. • A model is not an explanation.Models differ from theories in that a theory‘s role is explanation解釋whereas a model’s role is representation表達. 研究方法

26. Verifying theory • There are alternative theories to explain certain classes of phenomena. To determine which is the better theory, researchers gather empirical data or observations to verify the theories. 研究方法

27. Verifying vs. Falsifying Theory • It must be possible to demonstrate that a given proposition or theory is false…Why “false” rather than “true”? • Technically, there may be other untested theories which could account for the results we obtained in our study of a proposition. At the very least, there may be a competing explanation which could be the real explanation for a given set of research findings. Thus, we can never be certain that our proposition or theory is the correct one. 研究方法

28. Verifying theory • The scientist can only say, “I have a theory which I have objectively tested with data and the data are consistent with my theory.” if the possibility of proving an idea false or wrong is not inherent in our test of an idea, then we cannot put much faith in the evidence that suggests it to be true. No other evidence was allowed to manifest itself. 研究方法

29. How are theories generated? • The tradition image of science Idea/interest Theoretical understanding AB CX Y HypothesisY = f(X)y = f(x) Operationalization Hypothesis testing 研究方法

30. Deductive versus inductive reasoning • The traditional image of science is based on deductive reasoning. • Deductive reasoning moves from the general to the specific. It moves from (1) a pattern that might be logically or theoretically expected to (2) observation that test whether the expected pattern actually occurs • Inductive reasoning moves from the particular to the general, from a set of specific observations to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among all the given events. • Notice that deduction begins with “why” and moves to “whether” while induction moves in the opposite direction. 研究方法

31. Deductive Method grades Hypothesis Reject hypothesis? grades Hours studying grades Observation Hours studying Hours studying

32. Inductive Method grades Observations Tentative conclusion grades Hours studying grades Finding a pattern Hours studying Hours studying

33. Deductive versus inductive reasoning • Example: How do we explain stock performance? • Fundamental and technical analysis • Question: Can you come up with an inductive and a deductive theory of marriage? • Dependent=是否結婚，從戀愛到結婚的時間，duration of marriage, divorce probability…etc. • Independent = “distance” of age, education, socio-economic status…etc. 研究方法

34. The Wheel of Science Induction • Both deduction and induction are routes to the construction of social theories. Theory and research interact through a never ending alternation of deduction, induction, deduction, and so forth. It’s a matter of personal choice! Deduction Theories Empirical generalizations Hypotheses Observations 研究方法

35. Deductive theory construction • Pick a topic that interest you and write down your own observations and ideas about it. • Specify the range of phenomena your theory address. • Identify and specify your major concepts and variables. • Find out what is known (propositions) about the relationships among those variable. • Reason logically from those propositions to the specific topic you are examining. 研究方法

36. Inductive theory construction • Field research--the direct observation of events in progress--is frequently used to develop theories through observation. • Analysis of secondary data may be another way to the development of inductive theory. • Example : choice of accounting firms. • Example : Job Search 研究方法

37. Combining deduction and induction • 1) Encounters a curiosity, doubt, barrier, suspicion, or obstacle. • 2) Struggles to state the problem: asks questions, contemplates existing knowledge, gathers facts, and moves from an emotional to an intellectual confrontation with the problem. • 3) Proposes hypotheses to explain the facts that are believed to be logically related to the problem. • 4) Deduces outcomes or consequences of the hypotheses 研究方法

38. Combining deduction and induction • 5) Formulates several rival hypotheses. • 6) Devises and conducts a crucial empirical test with various possible outcomes, each of which selectively excludes one or more hypotheses. • 7) Draws a conclusion, an inductive inference, based on acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. • 8) Feeds information back into the original problem, modifying it according to the strength of the evidence. 研究方法

39. Overview of the scientific method • Assessment of relevant existing knowledge • Formulation of concepts and propositions • Statement of hypotheses • Design the research to test the hypotheses • Acquisition of meaningful empirical data • Analysis and evaluation of data • Provide explanation and state new problems raised by the research 研究方法