CASARA NATIONAL NAVIGATOR COURSE The Aircraft and Safety

1. CASARA NATIONAL NAVIGATOR COURSE The Aircraft and Safety

2. CASARA Aircraft • CASARA Aircraft are aircraft with a normal C of A and preferably a four place high wing configuration, however other aircraft with a normal C of A may be used. • As the aircraft is normally flown under Visual Flight Rules, navigation equipment may be minimal however GPS systems are more and more common and capable. • Normally they can carry enough fuel for approximately five (5) hours flying but weight limitations and a four person CASARA crew limits the fuel load.

3. Engine Management The following instruments and controls relate to the operation of the engine: • Tachometer – engine RPM • Normal indication of “power” • Throttle • Controls “power”

4. Engine Management • Mixture • Controls leanness of fuel/air mixture. • Carb Heat • Controls temperature of air being fed to the engine (to prevent icing of the carburator)

5. Fuel System • Typically 2 or 4 fuel tanks • Pilot must select the tank from which to draw fuel. • Fuel gauges are often unreliable and the fuel tanks must be dipped prior to flight to determine the correct fuel reading. • The amount of fuel carried is a function of the maximum weight of the aircraft and the weight of the “load” ie. Pax and cargo not including fuel.

6. Fuel Load • A Cessna 172 has a maximum weight (AUW) (A/C basic weight + pax + cargo + fuel) of 2300 lbs • AUW = 2300 lbs • Basic weight = 1477 lbs • Pax (4) = 700 lbs • Cargo = 15 lbs • Available fuel = 108 lbs or 18 US gal • Endurance for this configuration is 18 US gal with a fuel burn of 8 gph or 2 hrs + 12 min

7. Fuel System • Fuel use is measured in gallons/hour • 172 is typically 8 US Gal/hour (approx 31 L) • 172 normal tanks hold 42 Gals or 159.0 L, (40 Usable or 151.5 L) • 1 US Gal of Avgas weighs 6 Lbs • 1 L = 1.6 lbs

8. Speed vs Fuel • A/C speed will effect enroute times and the amount of fuel used. • Check with the pilot to determine speed en-route to the search (transit) and speed during the search. • Confirm fuel carried and fuel consumption figures with the pilot.

9. Cockpit and Instrument Panel • On the next two slides we will review a typical light aircraft cockpit and instrument panel and highlight some of the controls and instruments.

10. Cessna 172 Cockpit Carb heat Fuel Indicators Mixture Throttle Circuit Breakers Fuel Selector

11. “Typical” Aircraft Panel Airspeed Artificial Horizon Altimeter Audio panel/ Intercom GPS Nav/Comm 1 Nav/Comm 2 Transponder Directional Gyro Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Tacometer

12. Navigation Instruments • Compass: • Primary source of heading information • Most accurate when read after a short time in level flight • Directional Gyro (DG): • Stable heading info • Must be read in level flight • Must be reset to the Compass from time to time.

13. Navigation Instruments • Altimeter: • Only as accurate as the Altimeter Setting.

14. Navigation Instruments • VOR (VHF Omni Range) • Appropriate frequency must be set on the VOR controller. • Provides a course to or from the VOR transmitter. • May be displayed as a pointer or an “on-track” indication. • For “on-track” indication, the course to be flown must be dialed in on the instrument.

15. Navigation Instruments • ADF (automatic direction finder) • Appropriate frequency must be set on the ADF controller. • Provides a bearing to / from the NDB (Beacon) transmitter.

16. Navigation Instruments • GPS (Global Positioning System) • Based on timed signal from satellites far in space. • Very accurate (down to 20 feet or less) • Shows position as a readout of Latitude and Longitude or on a display of various levels of complexity (cont’d)

17. Navigation Instruments • GPS (Global Positioning System) • Also shows: • ground speed, • track, • time to the next waypoint, • time to destination • as well as a number of other features depending on the unit. (cont’d)

18. Navigation Instruments • GPS (Global Positioning System) • Plotting Search Patterns. • In most units it is possible to lay out the search pattern directly on the map page of the unit by slewing from position to position in the search pattern and entering them as way points (cont’d)

19. Navigation Instruments • GPS (Global Positioning System) • Sightings. • When you have a sighting of a possible target it is also possible to enter the position rapidly as a waypoint for later reference. • It is critical that you are familiar with this procedure (cont’d)

20. Navigation Instruments • GPS (Global Positioning System) • Nearest airport- Most GPSs have a feature which allows you to display the bearing and distance to the nearest airports in the event of an emergency. • Some aircraft systems depend on batteries versus aircraft power.(cont’d)

21. Navigation Instruments • GPS (Global Positioning System) • There are numerous types of GPS systems and all come with a comprehensive manual … • While the CASARA navigator must be able to operate effectively without the GPS, his/her accuracy is greatly enhanced if he/she is proficient with the GPS.

22. Aircraft Instruments • This next slide shows a typical instrument panel. • Be sure to be familiar with the necessary controls in the aircraft in which you will be flying.

23. Typical Flight Instruments Compass Altimeter Attitude Indicator Air Speed VOR Turn Coordinator Directional Gyro Fuel VSI Tach ADF

24. Flight Instruments & Safety • While the navigators role is to navigate, he/she can also act as a SAFETY Member if he/she knows what to look for. (Ref: CASARA Trg Manual, p.109)

25. Flight Instruments & Safety • Attitude Indicator • Indicated the bank angle and nose-up or nose-down attitude of the A/C • Should reflect the visual horizon • SAFETY- If it exceeds 30 degrees of bank, advise the pilot.

26. Flight Instruments & Safety Airspeed Indicator • Confirm with the pilot the minimum sped he/she intends to fly and advise him/her if he/she slows below that speed.

27. Flight Instruments & Safety • Altimeter • Advise the pilot if he/she goes below the search altitude he/she has specified, without advising the crew. • Also advise him/her if his/her altitude is within 500 feet of an obstacle of which you are aware.

28. Clothing • Be prepared. • Always dress as though you would have to walk out from the area over which you are operating in typical weather of the season. • Footwear should be comfortable and sturdy • If it is insect season, carry a mosquito net and/or an effective insect repellant. (Cont’d)

29. Clothing • As spotters, we know how small a target we are so carry some sort of signaling device such as a mirror. • If near or over water wear a personal flotation device and be familiar with its operation and features. (Cont’d)

30. Hazards of Low Level Navigation • There are a number of hazards and difficulties associated with low level navigation. Some of these are: • Birds – A frequent danger requiring a good lookout. • Towers/Power lines – These can be found anywhere and are often not on the map. (Cont’d)

31. Hazards of Low Level Navigation • Terrain – vegetation makes it hard to spot checkpoints requiring anticipation and good compass work. • Aircraft Traffic – Intense in a search area made worse by poor navigation and the possibility of sightseers in the area. (Cont’d)

32. Hazards of Low Level Navigation • Altitude – The shorter your visibility range for waypoints and navigation cues. • Airspeed – The lower you are the faster the relative speed over the ground and he more difficult it is to notice detail.

33. The End