指導教授： 陳明溥 博士 研 究 生： 周韻芳

1. Student Models of Instructional Design ID?? 指導教授：陳明溥 博士 研 究 生：周韻芳 Magliaro, S. G. & Shambaugh, N. , (2006). Student models of instructional design. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 54(1), 83-106.

2. Mental Models • What aremental models? • Mental models as internal representations that are best characterized as a personalized network or networks of concepts (Carley&Morris,1992). • Three General features: • A human construct used to explain how humans make sense of the world. • Continually change, depending on our individual needs to cope, understand, and act. • Mental models of concepts, rules, and human activity can be represented by networks, maps, even visual images. • How to teach with mental models? Sources for students to construct mental models • From what they know about the world • From what they observe of the world • From outside explanations

3. Mental Models • How to study mental models • Experimental methods • Independent variables • Empirical modeling • Human observations and subsequent actions can be mathematically recorded, and regression can be used to identify the input-output relationships. • Analytical modeling • The goal is to minimized the differences between what humans do and what they should do based on an agreed-upon mental model. • Studying mental models is the use of verbal and written reports. • The use of “think-alouds” records what people say about what they do as they perform the task.

4. ID models • What are ID models? • Conceptual models, all with the goal of making instructional development efficient and predictable in terms of success of the final product-learning. (Aderson&Goodson,1980;Edmonds,Branch,&Mukherjee,1994) • A linear row of boxes (step-by-step, invariant procedure) • ID process with circles, curved intersecting lines or no lines at all. • How to teach with ID models? • Create models for understanding the ID process • Use models as tools to guide instruction in ID • To help students learn the value of a systematic process for developing instruction • Typified by the so-called ADDIE model.

5. ID models • How to study studentID models Understanding ： • What would student models of ID look like? • How would students represent an approach for developing instruction? • Analysis of student ID models • Not only affords instructors a concrete understanding of how students construe ID,but also provides them with the knowledge to create a more relevant and developmentally appropriate pedagogy.

6. Purpose • 研究目的 Analyzing how mental models represent student thinking about ID. • 研究問題 • What ADDIE components were included? • What is the structural nature of student’s ID models?

7. Methodology • Employedcontent analysisto identify • the components of the models(Q1) • categorize the structural nature of student ID models(Q2). • Participants • 178 students (115teachers,63 nonteachers) • 1994-2001的12門master’s ID課程學生

8. Student learning tasks and assessment were similar across all deliveries

9. Methodology • Course description and ID model task (Figure 1)

10. 以ADDIE為架構，增加Learning beliefs & Design tools兩項 • Learning beliefs • 告知學習任務，並定義相關的學習原則、作業規定 • Design tools • 在設計整個教學時，將會運用到那些工具與技術

11. Methodology • Course description and ID model task： • 在進入ADDIE教學前，先讓學生陳述他們的學習信念，以確認相關的學習原則。 • 要求學生定義ID和建構他們自己初步的ID model。 • 設想他們的ID model(包含哪些元素)。 • 用敘述性解釋寫下ID model的元素和元素間的關係。 • 介紹其他ID元素(包含needs assessment,instructional sequence,assessment, instructional framwork,prototype,program evaluation) • 課程中，學生被要求表現出與傳統ID model不同的元素，及這些模式和他們的元素如何融入發展ID的理解。 • 此門課主要的任務就是希望學生去發展一個ID project • 課程結束之後，學生可以修正他們一開始的ID陳述，也可修改模式或建構一個新的模式。 • 最後，再用文章解釋他們的ID元素、元素間的關係和這個模式如何運作。

12. Methodology • Data sources and analysis • ID model data • Visual representation • Narrative explaining the model • Analysis • 由學生所設計的ID model中，分析符合ADDIE 的那些components • 分析這些component之間的關係，架構種類如下： • Conceptual-sequential • Conceptual-dynamic • metaphoric

13. Results • (Q1)ADDIE components分析結果 96 12 42 在設計階段，概念元素多寡依序為：評量→教學架構→科技媒體→教學順序 整體而言，概念元素多寡依序為：Design→Evaluation→Analysis→Other →Implementation →Development

14. 96 12 Discussion- ADDIE Components • Evaluation(120) ≠Analysis(105) • Serial position effect.因為先學需求評估，最後才學評鑑 • Development 項目較少 • 這個項目在以科技媒體為主的教學中是必備的，但在一般教學中較沒有一個清楚的教學順序。 • Implementation • 學生對此階段的概念通常就是Prototype,發展出一個完整的教學內容。

15. Results • (Q2)Structural categories： • Conceptual-sequential models (35,19.7%) • Conceptual-dynamic models (61,35.5%) • Metaphoric models (76,44.2%) Total 172

16. systematic,orderly,input,output,linear

17. Abstract shape or set of shapes ,bidirectional, cycle, interaction, flexibility, creative, loop back, recursive

18. Concrete objects • Situations • Activities • Dynamic • Constant checking • Creative & playful manner

19. Total(人)： 36 60 76 172

20. Discussion- Structural categories • Metaphoric最高的原因 • 研究限制：這模式的已於現有ID文獻出現，且課堂討論時Metaphors被當作使用工具去呈現他們的知識。明顯的喜愛使用Metaphors，很可能因為是新手。 • 使用一個具體的呈現方式去解決複雜的過程是學生較可得的思考工具。因此教師(58)相對於非教師(18)較多採用Metaphors去呈現ID。 Metaphors幫助教師具體化人類的活動。

21. Discussion- Structural categories • Dynamic(60)需要複雜的活動處理，平行的設計過程。只有35個模式能清楚的呈現定義、過程順序、預測出滿意解答的策略 • 學生表面上呈現dynamic的過程，但他們不見得真正理解dynamic的複雜性，且按照他們自己的模式他們不見得可以用一個滿意的解決方式結束。 • 個人的ID模式在課程結束之後才產生，所以學生從未真正使用它們自己的模式在設計專案。 • 研究限制：我們決定要用他們最初的模式設計他們一開始的ID課程是很困難的。 • 雖然新手可以宏觀的設計，但他們微觀的呈現是部分且不完全的。 • 雖然很多人對於正式的ID學習是新手，但是他們有非正式的設計經驗或教過國中小大學或企業的經驗。 • 由此可見，學生呈現他們所理解的ID過程用非常不同的方式。雖然一些模式是相似的，但是沒有兩個模式是完全相同的。

22. Conclusions • Learners do not always use the models given to them, but construct mental models that meet specific needs. • Students reflect on their initial ID models as they learn about each ID component in the course and to revise their models • The value of concrete representations such as metaphors cannot be underestimated.

23. The End • Thanks